Soc. 3595 Childhood and Adolescence

Week 1 Reading Notes and Discussion Questions

 

Corsaro Intro

 

1.      Two central concepts of New Sociology of Childhood

a.       Children are active, creative social agents who produce their own unique children’s culture while simultaneously contributing to the production of adult societies.

b.      Childhood is a permanent structural form – category or part of society like class and age groups and is interrelated with other structural categories.

 

2.      Central theme in book: interpretive reproduction: children actively contribute to societal preservation (reproduction) as well as change.

a.       Negotiations with adults

b.      Creative production of peer cultures

 

Chapter 1: Social Theories of Childhood

 

  1. Historically children have been marginalized
    1. Subordinate position in societies
    2. Theoretical conceptualizations of socialization (as one-way process leading toward adulthood rather than childhood as end in itself)
    3. Needs of children viewed as social problems

 

  1. Constructivist and interpretive perspectives
    1. Children and adults as active participants in social construction of childhood
    2. Children do not just “consume” culture handed down by adults; they create culture

 

  1. Deterministic Model: Society appropriates child
    1. Child is taken over by society; trained to become a competent adult
    2. Child as passive
    3. Functionalist models:

                                                               i.      Parsons – children as threats to smooth functioning of society; need to be socialized and internalize culture

                                                             ii.      Reproductive models – socialization as reproduction of culture and social order; class differences passed on thru generations

    1. weaknesses of deterministic model

                                                               i.      concentrates on outcomes of socialization; underestimates active and innovative capacities of children

                                                             ii.      downplays importance of children’s activities – “children do not just internalize the society they are born into.”

 

  1. Constructivist Model: child appropriates society
    1. Children take info from environment and organize and construct it into interpretation of world

                                                               i.      Piaget – children perceive and organize world differently from adults; depends on stage of cognitive development

                                                             ii.      Vygotsky – children’s social development as result of collective action; deal with societal demands through interaction and language; activities of children arise through collective attempts to cope with everyday problems

1.      internalization – developments as two stage process, first social, then individual (e.g. self-directed speech)

2.      zone of proximal development – gap between actual development (what child can accomplish independently) and potential development (what child can accomplish under adult guidance).  Child is step ahead in interactions with others.

                                                            iii.      Rogoff – Participatory appropriation – previous experiences of collective activities influence current experience and interpretation thru preparation

b. Weaknesses of constructivist model

      1. Focus on individual development; little study of interpersonal relations

      2. Focus on endpoint of development (maturity)

 

  1. Interpretive Reproduction: Children collectively participate in society.
    1. Socialization as appropriation, reinvention, reproduction
    2. Importance of communal activity
    3. Innovative, creative aspects of socialization  - children’s cultures contribute to cultural production and change but are also constrained by existing social structure and societal reproduction
    4. Central features of children’s culture

                                                               i.      Language – encoding and representing reality

                                                             ii.      Cultural routines – habitual, repeated activities enable children to deal with ambiguity,  the unexpected,  the problematic – teaches “rules of the game,” “range of embellishments” on rules

 

  1. Linear vs. Orb Web views
    1. Linear view (staircase) – childhood as preparation for adulthood; stages of development leading to maturity
    2. Orb Web view (concentric circles) – page 26 – each circle represents age/stage; move around circle at each stage; to new circle at next stage.

                                                               i.      Participation in different fields increases with stage

                                                             ii.      Peer cultures are not the same as stages –created within the web and reaching across stages; remain part of one’s life history and influence one’s experiences

 

  1. Focus of book: children’s two cultures
    1. Children participate in and are part of two cultures (children’s and adults’)
    2. Children as social group that has place in larger social structure (childhood as permanent form in society)

 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 1

 

1. Think back to your childhood.  What experiences do you remember that influenced or changed your view of the world?  That caused a ”leap” in your understanding or mental conception of how the world worked?  Did this experience take place in interaction with others?  How was that interaction crucial to the outcome?

 

2. Read the story of the children’s play routine described on pages 1 and 2.  Explain how it illustrates the concept of interpretive reproduction.  Describe an example of interpretive reproduction from your own childhood or your observation of children.

 

3. What is the problem with traditional theories of socialization and development?  How does the New Sociology of Childhood attempt to address this problem?

 

4. Give an example of the Orb Web as you have experienced it.  Choose one of the fields, perhaps education, community, or culture.  How have you moved through this field at different points in your development?  How did your experiences with peer culture influence your experience in these fields at later stages?

 

 

Chapter 2: Structure of Childhood and Children’s Interpretive Reproductions

 

1.Structural Perspective (Jens Qvortrup)

            a. Childhood is a structural form

            b. Childhood is exposed to same societal forces as adulthood

            c. Children are co-constructors of childhood and society.

 

  1. Structural form of childhood

a. Stage in life AND social category (like race)

b. How is childhood alike, different from, and related to other age groups at any

 given time and place.

 

  1. Social forces affecting children and adults
    1. Divorce
    2. Single parenthood
    3. Smaller families
    4. Mothers’ labor force participation
    5. Variation in family forms and living arrangements

 

  1. Children’s activities and contributions to society
    1. Children are not “useless” but contribute actively to adult society
    2. Hausa society (Nigeria): Children wander freely, carry out errands for mothers in purdah, develop children’s economy.  This allows women to follow traditional gender roles but also carry out domestic responsibilities and earn incomes through children.
    3. Western societies: Schoolwork – continuation of earlier forms of children’s labor.  Children as co-producers of knowledge. School work as supporting bureaucratic structure of schools.
    4. Work outside home
    5. Work inside the home (chores)
    6. Play and leisure: 50% + are involved in structured activities. Not by choice; used as child care.  Lack of siblings and playmates available for free play

 

  1. Activities and Interpretive Reproduction
    1. Exposure to peers occurs early, during preschool years
    2. First in a series of autonomous peer cultures
    3. Peer cultures engage in collective action

                                                               i.      Appropriation of knowledge and info from adult world

                                                             ii.      Production and participation in peer culture

                                                            iii.      Reproduction and extension of adult culture

 

  1. Study of childhood should be taken seriously

 

 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 2

  1. How might each of the social forces listed above make the experience of childhood qualitatively different today from what it was like in the 1950’s and 1960’s?

 

  1. Watch movies or TV programs from the 1960’s and today.  Discuss how the media presents childhood.  Address at least some of the following questions for each time period.  To what extent do children have knowledge of the adult world (i.e., are they portrayed as innocent or sophisticated)?  How is the peer culture portrayed?  To what extent is diversity of family forms and experience of childhood portrayed?  Give an example of reproduction and extension of adult culture.

 

  1. Consider an ordinary object such as a cell phone.  To your instructor, a cell phone is a convenience – a way to take my phone with me and be available to family members no matter where I am.  But it’s still just a phone. To the next generation, a cell phone is much more – almost an extension of themselves.  Discuss the difference in the meaning of this object between the two generations.  Show how this difference in use of cell phones relates to the three types of collective action in peer cultures: appropriation of knowledge and information from adult world, production and participation in peer culture, and reproduction and extension of adult culture

 

Chapter 3: Studying Children and Childhood

 

  1. General trend from research on children to research with children.
    1. Capture children’s own voice, perspective

 

  1. Macro level methods
    1. Demographic studies – census data, focus on age structure, economics
    2. Large scale surveys – PSID (panel study of income dynamics, others). Rely on parent’s reports, seldom question children.
    3. Historical methods – public records, books, family documents. Focus on children’s role in society, history.  Neglected area.

 

  1. Micro level methods
    1. Face to face interviews – good for exploring children’s interpretations of their own lives; difficulty with power imbalance b/t researcher and child. Sometimes use group interviewing, or researchers study own children or others they naturally encounter.
    2. Ethnography and linguistic analysis – Corsaro’s method – must be sustained and engaged (long period of time, acceptance into group, interaction with group. Notes that kids saw him as “big dumb kid”).

                                                               i.      Also must focus on child’s perspective – what do behaviors mean to child?

                                                             ii.      Must be flexible (Corsaro took suggestions from kids; they wrote in his notebook).

 

  1. Nontraditional methods
    1. Allow children to express themselves – drawings and stories
    2. Parents as Researchers – easy access to kids’ settings

 

  1. Ethical Issues
    1. Children are considered “vulnerable population” by IRB’s

                                                               i.      Research must have active parental consent

                                                             ii.      Parents can review notes and data before publication

    1. Power imbalance between researcher and child
    2. Parents as Researchers – causes role conflicts

                                                               i.      Neutral observer vs. guiding parent

                                                             ii.      Cannot become “one of the kids” and still maintain parental authority.

 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 3:

 

1. List some of the reasons why studying children is more challenging than studying adults.  What techniques have researchers used to address these challenges?

 

2. What are the advantages and disadvantages of the macro vs. micro level methods described in the text?

 

Chapter 4: Historical Views of Childhood and Children

 

  1. Philippe Aries – idea of childhood as unique developed from medieval society. 
    1. Children absent from early medieval paintings, or depicted as little adults.
    2. “Coddling period” – 13th century -shown as little angels –childhood as innocent and sweet, children as source of amusement for women. 
    3. “Moralistic period” – 16th – 18th centuries – negative reaction to coddling; children needed discipline and training for adulthood

Instructor’s note – some say we are back to coddling again – children as source of emotional gratification, highly protected and isolated by age.

    1. Aries was critical of isolation of children, segregation by class and age.

 

  1. Did childhood really develop in historical stages (“Grand Stage Theories)?
    1. Aries – yes
    2. DeMause – yes, history shows progression from children as ignored and neglected to valued and protected.
    3. Pollock – no, analysis of diaries shows childhood was not so different in historical times; children were always wanted and cared for. (But data came from upper literate classes).

 

  1. New history of childhood
    1. Collective actions of children during historical times.
    2. Barbara Hanawalt – Medieval London – children found time to play, were not abandoned or abused, court cases show special treatment of children in legal system and work place.  Play of children imitated adult life, involved pageantry and drama, sometimes mocking adults.  Shows existence of peer culture.
    3. Lester Alston – Slave children in pre-Civil War South – analyzed former slave narratives and interviews from 1930’s.  Members of slave quarters considered themselves as families. Slave children did not work full time (only to insure better adulthood health). Older children did child care for siblings.  Understood system of slavery, often acted out fears in dramatic role play. Avoided “elimination” games (dodge ball, etc.) Played with white children, but occupied subordinate caste.  Shows importance of children in community; differentiation within peer cultures.
    4. David Nasaw – pioneer and immigrant children, 1890’s – 1920 –Children worked on farms, played essential role in harvesting crops.  Tended gardens, did housework, cared for younger siblings.  Urban children foraged for food, roamed neighborhoods, had autonomy. Girls worked in the home. Some worked for pay, became entrepreneurs (e.g., “Newsies”).
    5. Conclusions –

                                                               i.      Children have always had considerable autonomy

                                                             ii.      Children participate in peer cultures which view society differently from adults.

                                                            iii.      Adult perspective is influenced by past experiences (e.g., immigrants recall “old country”), children live in present.

 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 4:

 

1. Philippe Aries is critical of contemporary society because it isolates and segregates children from the adult world.  He sees our efforts to protect and educate children as denying them their freedom.  Do you agree or disagree?  Give evidence to back up your answer.

 

2. How do the three historical examples covered in this chapter illustrate the concepts of “autonomy,” “activity,” and “social reproduction?”

 

3. Historically, children’s peer cultures existed in physical environments, such as the neighborhood, the plantation, or the school.  Today, children and adolescents can also interact in a virtual environment through social networking web sites such as MySpace and Facebook.  How might the concepts of  “autonomy,” “activity,” and “social reproduction” be represented in this virtual environment?

 

Chapter 6: Children’s Peer Cultures and Interpretive Reproduction

 

  1. Peers = “Cohort or group who spend time together on an everyday basis,” primarily in face-to-face interaction.
  2. Peer Culture = “Stable set of activities or routines, artifacts, values, and concerns that children produce and share in interaction with peers.”
  3. Importance – Participation in adult routines generates disturbances or uncertainties; this is normal. Some of this is resolved thru interaction with peers. Peer cultures “attempt to make sense of and, to a certain extent, resist, adult world.”
  4. Parental vs. peer effects
    1. Harris: 50% of personality is genetic; 50% environmental, mostly due to peers.
    2. Corsaro: Family still important: introduces child to peer culture, interprets world to children
  5. Transition into Initial Peer Cultures
    1. Family influences – when and to which settings children are exposed; cultural variation (e.g. amount of time in child care). Parental interpretation prepares child for formal school.
    2. Interpersonal and emotional influences

                                                               i.      Kids strive to maintain emotional security of family; leads them to form relationships with others.

                                                             ii.      Concepts of position and sharing may change – toys jointly owned; protection of interactive space

                                                            iii.      Conceptions of friendship – first defined by parents, later through ongoing interaction.  Initially refers to shared space and activities, later to specific people.  Used to structure groups and relationships (“We’re friends, right?”)

  1. Symbolic aspects of peer cultures
    1. Media – present characterizations, norms, moral standards.
    2. Literature and fairy tales

                                                               i.      Often “subversive” – portray kids as smarter than adults, challenging adults

                                                             ii.      Children may participate in reading books, elaborate on stories, tell adults how they want it read, act out stories in play

    1. Mythical figures and legends

                                                               i.      Often scary (Gaingeen, la Strega). 

                                                             ii.      May be used to control children (Gaingeen will get you, Santa won’t bring presents)

                                                            iii.      May help children work out fears and anxieties (dramatic play)

                                                           iv.      May help children through transitions (Tooth Fairy)

  1. Material aspects of children’s cultures
    1. Clothing, books, artistic and literary tools, but especially toys
    2. Most research on toys deals with stereotyping; too narrow.  Need to ask how children “collectively and creatively appropriate, use, and infuse toys with meaning.”
    3. Historical studies: predominant nature of play involved others; toys less important.
    4. 1870’s: 2 new themes: accumulation of toys for its own sake, and toys as defining identity of child.

                                                               i.      Example: doll play after Civil War.  Adults encouraged maternal, housekeeping play with dolls; kids played very roughly – abused dolls, “killed” them, held funerals.  Adults interpreted as dealing with fears and grief.

    1. Market research: addresses symbolic meaning of toys to kids and parents

                                                               i.      Hero worship, daydreams, absurdity, group identity.  “Gross” and “Disgusting” may appeal to kids because adults dislike.

                                                             ii.      Children’s culture is strong consumer culture.  Adults object, but kids use as communal identity.

                                                            iii.      Educational and politically correct toys may be elitist and expensive.

                                                           iv.      Consumer culture contains pro-social messages.

                                                             v.      Need more research on adult-child interactions in entertainment settings (watching movies, going to amusement parks, playgrounds)

 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 6:

 

1. Watch a children’s TV program.  Give examples of how character, norms, and moral standards are presented.

 

2. Corsaro describes mythical figures in children’s folklore, such as Gaingeen, La Strega, and the Tooth Fairy.  These figures are used by adults to control children and are used by children to address fears, anxieties, and transitions.  Can you think of a similar figure from your own childhood or from children that you know today?  Describe that figure and how s/he appeared in your interactions with adults and with other children.

 

3. Give an example of a toy which might be given different meaning by children and adults.  How do adults see children using that toy?  How do children actually use it?

 

4. Educational toys are a huge industry today.  Although Corsaro acknowledges the value of such toys, he argues that they may be elitist.  What does he mean?  Give examples.

 

Chapter 7: Sharing and Control in Initial Peer Cultures

 

  1. First peers encountered outside the family – kin and neighborhood groups, preschool, child care.
    1. Subculture within broader societal and adult culture

 

  1. Central themes in initial peer cultures
    1. Persistent attempts to gain control of their lives
    2. Sharing those attempts with each other

                                                               i.      Climbing to top of play structures to look down at adults (value of “growing up,” “getting bigger”

                                                             ii.      Chanting aimed at adults: repetitive, teasing

 

  1. Friendship, sharing, social participation
    1. Routines as basis for social interaction

                                                               i.      Very common and persistent

                                                             ii.      Establish shared meaning

                                                            iii.      Elaborate on shared meaning (“Little chairs”)

    1. Protection of interactive space

                                                               i.      Resistance to intrusion of others

1.      seems selfish to adults

2.      creates sense of sharing to children; this is fragile

                                                             ii.      Access strategies

1.      Nonverbal entry

2.      Encirclement

3.      Verbally propose variation of original play

4.      DON’T: ask questions, mention yourself, criticize

5.      DO: Figure out play theme, enter area, plug into action by proposing variant of original theme

6.      These are not unlike adult interaction in social situations

                                                            iii.      “Friendship” = stable relationships and playmates

1.      Maximizes probability of successful entry and satisfying interaction.

2.      Socially constructed through active involvement

3.      Implies producing shared activity and protecting play from intrusions of others.

    1. Language, Routines, Rituals

1.      Patterned, repetitive, cooperative expressions of shared values or concerns of childhood. 

a.       Examples: cantilena, discussione

    1. Autonomy and control

1.      Challenging, mocking adult authority may be universal

2.      Play as arena for comment and criticism

3.      “Underlife” of preschools – contradict, challenge, or violate official rules or norms

4.       use legitimate resources in devious ways to get around rules (example: strategies to avoid clean-up)

5.      Learn how communal values can be used to achieve personal goals

    1. Confronting confusions, fears, and conflicts

                                                               i.      Interactions with adults generate disturbances or uncertainties

                                                             ii.      Improvisation, fantasy play addresses these disturbances

1.      Use communicative skills

2.      Participate in and extend peer cultures

3.      orient to wider adult cultures

4.      Common routine is approach-avoidance play

 

 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 7

 

1. Corsaro claims that behaviors such as climbing to the top of a play structure represent an attempt to grow larger or get on an equal level with adults.  Similarly, the late Fred Rogers (of “Mr. Rogers’ Neighborhood”) assured parents that when children play with toy guns, they are simply trying to control something that happens at a distance. Not unlike playing with garden hoses or remote controls, this type of play represents control over the environment.  The problem with these interpretations is validity: how do adult researchers arrive at these conclusions?  Could there be any other meaning of climbing to the top of a jungle gym or “shooting” a playmate with a toy gun?

 

2. Show how “Little Chairs” routine establishes and then elaborates on shared meaning.   How does it address and incorporate adult concerns while giving children a sense of control? 

 

3. What are discussione and cantilena?  How does Corsaro use them to illustrate the concepts of routines?  What purposes does he say they serve for the children in Italian preschools? 

 

4. If you have the opportunity to observe children in preschool, look for examples of “underlife” or “secondary adjustments.”  How might these resemble adult behaviors in the workplace?

 

5. Why do children so love “approach-avoidance” play?  Why is it so universal?  What does this type of play accomplish?  Give a detailed example from the text or from your own observation.

 

Chapter 8: Conflict and Differentiation in the Initial Peer Culture

 

  1. Conflict is inevitable in friendship
    1. Serves positive purposes: strengthen alliances, organize groups
    2. Also involves communication
  2. Discussione and debate in Italian preschools
    1. Central features of Italian culture
    2. Everyone has right to participate

                                                               i.      Arena for participation in peer culture

                                                             ii.      Highly communal – easy entry, opportunities for embellishment and creativity

                                                            iii.      Accompanies and sometimes takes over teacher-directed activities

                                                           iv.      Complex negotiations; empowerment to solve problems

  1. Oppositional talk in American Head Start Center
    1. Playful teasing; feature of African American culture
    2. Seldom react negatively; value this type of talk
    3. Extended group debate; competition (“top this”)
    4. Children control debate

                                                               i.      May seem aggressive to white middle class

                                                             ii.      Produces cultural affirmation and community – participation shows allegiance to cultural values

                                                            iii.      Shows that child can “hold her own” – strength or power

  1. Conflict and Friendship in American Upper Middle Class Preschool
    1. Emphasis on individual expression, patience, respect for individuals’ uniqueness and rights.
    2. Children brought conflicts to teachers; teachers suggested ways to handle
    3. “Friendship” given or withheld to control others’ behavior or get own way
    4. Cliques developed; demanded certain behaviors; often led to conflict
    5. Conflicts often persisted over time.
    6. Led to understanding of friendship relations and expectations (roles).

 

  1. Gender Differentiation
    1. Begins as young as age 3, seems to be “self-imposed.”
    2. Boys value competition and toughness, girls value affiliation and establishing “best friends.”

                                                               i.      Paley: “Doll Corner” study – girls devised dramatic plots, brought in sisters and princesses; boys put out fires, captured robbers, ate dinner.  Teachers discovered that compromise didn’t work.

                                                             ii.      Martin: “Hidden Curriculum” – preschool teachers used different means of physical control for boys and girls – permitted more informal play among boys, gave girls more instructions, only directed boys when they needed to stop doing something.

                                                            iii.      Variation in gender differentiation by age and culture. 

1.      More common in same-age groups.

2.      More assertiveness among African American girls, also more cross-gender play

3.      Italian preschools encouraged cross-gender play; roles more fluid, neutral (animals, gypsies).

                                                           iv.      Knowledge of gender centered around marriage and babies; cross-sex relationships viewed as romantic, not platonic

                                                             v.      Traditional developmental theories see gender identity as imposed by adults; observation shows children playing active role in construction of gender identity.

                                                           vi.      Children seem to resist dichotomized roles, prefer multiple ways to be male or female.

  1. Race differentiation
    1. Chilren construct race in own language and interactions

                                                               i.      Skin color is important

                                                             ii.      White children seldom mention race; Black children stressed black skin

                                                            iii.      Preschool cultures were stratified by race

                                                           iv.      Ideas of race were fluid; children attempted to understand concepts such as mixed race.

  1. Status hierarchies
    1. Form in most peer groups; led by dominant children.

                                                               i.      Dominance may depend on physical and verbal skills

    1. Boys often have clear chain of command; girls resisted rankings
    2. Fluid in preschool; leadership changes often, kids move in and out
    3. Ranks may be negotiated and debated; children often value process over structure
    4. In non-western societies may contribute to prosocial behavior and cohesiveness
    5. Some children are excluded:

                                                               i.      Rejected – often aggressive or withdrawn

                                                             ii.      Neglected – loners, “quiet” children

                                                            iii.      Controversial – enthusiastic, humorous, may be overbearing

                                                           iv.      Continual exclusion more characteristic of white middle class; “You can’t say you can’t play” isn’t as necessary in other settings.

 

 

DISCUSSION QUESTIONS FOR CHAPTER 8:

 

Compare and contrast the different ways conflict occurred and was handled in peer cultures in the three settings described in this chapter (Italian preschool, Head Start, American middle class preschool).  In what ways are the three settings similar?  In what ways are they different?  What possible positive and negative outcomes might result from the way conflict is managed in each setting?  How does each setting reflect the wider culture in which it exists?

 

Researchers have found that gender differentiation in preschools begins as early as age three, and that boys’ and girls’ values and behavior are already much different.  How does this happen?  How do three-year-olds develop ideas about gender identities and roles? 

 

Corsaro suggests that gender identities are not, as many theorists suggest, imposed on children by adults, but rather they are constructed in interaction with other children.  Based on your own observation of young children in interaction with each other, do you agree?  Why or why not? 

 

Status hierarchies among children are evident as early as preschool and often center around particular individuals.  What qualities or characteristics seem to place individuals in leadership positions within these hierarchies?  What qualities or characteristics seem to be associated with low status or exclusion?  How do you think children acquire these qualities?

 

In what ways are children aware of race and gender at the preschool level?  How are race and gender related to status hierarchies 1) in mixed groups and 2) in same-gender or same-race groups?