Section: CLINICAL & PROGRAM NOTES

Abstract. Rape of men by other men is a widely neglected yet increasingly recognized form of sexual assault. Information on same-sex rape involving men is frequently absent in campus rape education and prevention programming because the general public and popular culture have traditionally viewed rape in a context of violence against women. Available medical and psychological literature indicates the need for expanded prevention, treatment, and research dealing with men who rape other men. Several initiatives in the areas of curriculum infusion, support, services, training, and public policy for addressing same-sex rape of men in campus communities are offered.

Key Words: college men, rape, sexual assault, students, violence

An estimated 5% to 10% of rapes committed in the United States involve male victims.(n1-n3) The Bureau of Justice's National Crime Victimization Survey found that, of the rapes reported to the survey in 1994, the most recent year for which data are available, 5% of rape victims aged 12 years and older were males.(n4) These and similar data necessarily reflect only an estimation of the rape of men in the United States because of the vast underreporting of rape in general and the fact that fewer men than women seem willing to report being raped.(n3, n5, n6)

The term male rape is frequently used in reference to the same-sex rape of men. Unless carefully defined, the term may be semantically confusing because many people remain unsure whether the male in male rape is an indicator of the rapist, the victim, or both. The use of homosexual rape to connote men raping men is also problematic. The (homo)sexual terminology perpetuates the stereotypical notions that all gay men are sexual predators or that only gay men rape other men. On the contrary, the majority of men who rape other men are identified as heterosexual.(n5, n7-n9)

Emphasis on the root word sex in homosexual rape also conflates consensual sex with rape behavior. Fortunately, feminist social movements since the 1970s have laid much of the groundwork for an understanding of rape as an act of power rather than sex. Until now, most research on male rape has concluded, as has research on opposite-sex rape, that the rape of men is not sexually motivated.(n5-n9) Instead, it is a form of violent power and control exercised over others. Although opposite-sex rape can be seen as a violent expression of power related to gender inequality, same-sex rape can involve other power dynamics related to physical strength, weapon use, influence of alcohol and other drugs, political strength, economic power, social power, and more.

One attempt to delineate the different kinds of male rape involves an examination of the sexual identity of both the rapist and the survivor. Viewing same-sex rape as an act of power through this lens is especially poignant, considering the controversy surrounding the dichotomization of rape and sex employed by feminist movements of the last 25 years. For example, the rape of gay men (or men perceived to be gay) by heterosexual men is often accompanied by misogynist verbal epithets in which the rapist degrades his victim with such language as "bitch," "girl," and so on.(n5, n8, n10)

When same-sex rape is employed as a hate crime against gay men, usually as part of gay-bashing, social inequality between heterosexual and gay men is clear evidence of a propensity to commit acts of violence. Rigidly traditional forms of hegemonic masculinity portray gay men as weak, feminine, and fit only for punishment and humiliation in the most dehumanizing way possible. "The victim may symbolize what they [the rapists] want to control, punish, and/or destroy, something they want to conquer and defeat. The assault is an act of retaliation, an expression of power, and an assertion of their strength and manhood."(n5(809)) Sexual violence within gay male relationships or between gay male acquaintances is also a serious problem, just as it is for heterosexual people and lesbian women.(n11-n13)

Same-sex rape of heterosexual men carries the stigma and shame associated with homosexuality in our culture; if the general population equates sex and rape to some degree, a man who has been raped by another man is, by implication, a homosexual. The above categories could be further differentiated on the basis of whether the assault was stranger or acquaintance rape, interracial or intraracial, familial or nonfamilial, involved individual or multiple assailants, and so on. All of these factors can influence the rape experience, the dynamics of power involved, and the devastating aftermath faced by the male survivor.

Discussions of adult male rape are frequently absent in campus rape education and prevention programs because the general public and popular culture have traditionally viewed rape in a context of violence against women. Although women statistically constitute the majority of rape victims, assessments in medicine, law, and education continue to deny, dismiss, or diminish the significant number of men who are sexually assaulted.(n14) Male survivors of sexual assault may be less likely to report or seek treatment for their assault, in part because these men view rape crisis centers and hotlines as having been established to serve only women.(n2, n6)

At many colleges and universities, the rape of men by other men has only recently begun to generate responses from campus communities. Many sexual assault programs and organizations across the country are implementing minor initiatives to include and accommodate males in rape-related work, but the growing pains of such developments quickly become apparent.

A primary example is the dilemma of college rape education and prevention programs, often housed within campus women's centers and organizations that provide services and funding to male survivors. Many of these programs have mission statements that define their priority as the improvement of the campus climate for women while empowering them to overcome obstacles of sexism.

Is it then appropriate for these organizations to use resources that have been allocated for women's benefit to acts of violence that occur against and between men? If not, then where should such services originate and who should be held responsible for primary and secondary male rape prevention programs? How can we change existing systems to confront and deal with the phenomenon of male rape without compromising or damaging the successful sexual assault education and prevention services we have fought so hard to develop? Even an acknowledgment that men can be victims (or perpetrators) of same-sex rape may introduce a gender-contradiction into the women-centered missions, objectives, and goals of some sexual assault prevention programs, disrupting the fundamental structure and philosophy upon which they may have been built.

Concrete suggestions for the infusion of male rape programmatic content and services into general prevention education and crisis services are numerous. Here are six areas that campus health professionals should consider in evaluating how prepared they are to meet the needs of male rape survivors.

Prepare Resources and Referrals for Male Survivors

Are campus sexual assault centers prepared for male survivors' needs? Adequate referrals for support groups, counselors, hotlines, medical attention, financial assistance, and academic support should be prepared. Male-specific or gender-neutral literature and a short reading list should be available to the survivor. These resources should be compiled before a survivor contacts the office, not as the result of a last-minute search on behalf of a survivor in need of immediate crisis assistance.

Provide Training to Campus Health Clinic and Emergency Room Staff

Are campus health clinics and local hospital emergency rooms trained in the care of adult male survivors of rape? Many rape advocates and medical professionals never receive any such formal training. Not all hospital and statewide protocols for the forensic collection of evidence in rape cases include male-specific content. Adequate training for examination of men's bodies is crucial, as are procedures for the identification and interpretation of physical findings.

Determine and Address the Legal Implications of Same-Sex Rape

Do law enforcement officials receive sexual assault sensitivity training? If so, is the occurrence of male rape addressed? State and local legal statutes may strongly influence the campus climate for male rape survivors. How is male-on-male rape defined by state and local laws? In many states, rape laws are gender specific, rendering the rape of men a legal impossibility.

Ensure That Campus Policies Apply to Same-Sex Sexual Violence

Do campus policies relating to rape and sexual harassment, codes of student conduct, and nondiscrimination policies allow for the possibility of same-sex sexual violence?

Conduct Prevention and Education Work in Addition to Treatment

Is any form of proactive education and prevention work being done on campus? Reacting to the rape of men is essential, but it is not enough. Absence of attention to male rape denies the reality of same-sex rape and subsequently renders male survivors invisible. Infusion of male rape content into general rape education programming can be effective, not only for the provision of information but also for signifying that the organization or office is receptive and prepared to work with male survivors. Even a basic informational handout can be effective in heightening awareness that rape of men happens in campus communities. not solely in prison populations (see sidebar).

Provide Culturally Competent Programs

Has population-specific awareness and programming been considered? When the entire college rape prevention programming is based on heterosexual models, the sexual assault of gay men, as part of gay-bashing or acquaintance rape, is overlooked. Race, class, and other socioeconomic factors could influence the assault characteristics and impact. Single-sex campus environments, such as athletic teams, ROTC, all-male residence halls, and fraternities, may also be at a higher risk for male rapes, given the hierarchical structure such environments tend to rely on and the internal power struggles that often manifest as physical violence.(n8-n10) Outreach to these communities is essential.

The suggestions outlined above are not all-inclusive. The diversity of higher education institutions will dictate the development of additional programs and differing approaches to meet the particular needs of students. More extensive research on the same-sex rape of men is needed to draw further conclusions and closer estimations of this form of violence. As the knowledge and visibility of male rape increases nationally, so will the call for expertise in prevention, education, and treatment related to same-sex rape in campus communities.

(n1.) Forman BD. Reported male rape. Victimology: An International Journal. 1982;7:235-236.

(n2.) Frazier PA. A comparative study of male and female rape victims seen at a hospital-based rape crisis program. J Interpersonal Violence 1993;8:64-76.

(n3.) Kaufman AP. Male rape victims: Noninstitutionalized assault. Am J Psychiatry. 1980;137:221-223.

(n4.) Bureau of Justice Statistics' National Crime Victimization Survey, 1994. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin. April 1996.

(n5.) Groth AN, Burgess AW. Male rape: Offenders and victims. Am J Psychiatry. 1980;137:806-810.

(n6.) Mezey G, King M. The effects of sexual assault on men: A survey of 22 victims. Psychol Med. 1989;19:205-209.

(n7.) Hillman R. Adult male victims of sexual assault: An underdiagnosed condition. Int J STDs AIDS. 1991;2:22-24.

(n8.) McMullen R. Male Rape: Breaking the Silence on the Last Taboo. London: Gay Men's Press; 1990.

(n9.) Huckle PL. Male rape victims referred to a forensic psychiatric service. Med Sci Law. 1995;35:187-192.

(n10.) Funk RE. Stopping Rape. Philadelphia: New Society; 1993.

(n11.) Duncan DF. Prevalence of sexual assault victimization among heterosexual and gay/lesbian university students. Psychol Rep. 1990;166:65-66.

(n12.) Island D, Letellier P. Men Who Beat the Men Who Love Them. New York: Harrington Park; 1991.

(n13.) Waterman CK, Dawson LJ, Bologna MJ. Sexual coercion in gay male and lesbian relationships: Predictors and implications for support services. J Sex Res. 1989;26: 118-124.

(n14.) Strategies for the Treatment and Prevention of Sexual Assault. Chicago: American Medical Association; 1995.

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By Michael Scarce, MA

Michael Scarce is coordinator of the Ohio State University Rape Education and Prevention Program in Columbus.

Myth: Men cannot be raped.

Fact: Any person can be sexually assaulted. Although some state laws define the rape of men as sodomy or some other category of criminal activity. the reality of the crime and intensity of its impact make sexual assault one of the most devastating acts of violence a man can experience.

Myth: The rape of men happens only in prison.

Fact: Those who claim that rape of men happens only in institutional settings contribute to the continuing denial of rape in every community. Sexual assault can occur at any time in any place.

Myth: Only homosexual men rape other men.

Fact: The overwhelming majority of men who rape other men identify themselves as heterosexual. Rape is an act of violence and power. not an act of sex. Rapists seek to dominate and humiliate their victims.(n1)

Myth: The only males who are raped are children or very weak adults.

Fact: Any male, regardless of his age. class, race. physical strength, or sexual identity can be raped.

Myth: If a man experiences an erection or ejaculation while being raped, it means he wants to be raped.

Fact: Some men may experience an erection or ejaculation while being raped, not as the result of pleasure or an expression of consent, but as an involuntary physiological response to intense tear. pain, or anxiety.

Myth: Very few men, if any, are ever raped.

Fact: Until very recently, male rape remained a hidden crime. Like the rape of women and domestic violence, its incidence was considered low or nonexistent because most cases went unreported. Evidence now exists that demonstrates that male rape is both a frequent and serious occurrence. Several studies estimate that of the total number of rapes 5% to 10% involve male victims.(n2, n3) Other organizations, such as San Francisco's Bay Area Women Against Rape, estimate that 1 in 6 boys and 1 in 10 men will be raped in their lifetime.

(n.1) Groth AN. Burgess AW. Male rape: Offenders and victims. Am J Psychiatry. 1980;137: 806-810.

(n2.) Forman BK. Reported male rape. Victimology: An International Journal. 1982;7:235-236.

(n3.) Bureau of Justice Statistics' National Crime Victimization Survey, 1994. Bureau of Justice Statistics Bulletin. April 1996.