Herbert Spencer

"EVOLUTION IS AN INTEGRATION OF MATTER AND CONCOMITANT DISSIPATION OF MOTION; DURING WHICH MATTER PASSES FROM AN INDEFINITE, INCOHERENT HOMOGENEITY TO A DEFINITE, COHERENT HETEROGENEITY; AND DURING WHICH THE RETAINED MOTION UNDERGOES A PARALLEL TRANSFORMATION."

1. HOMOGENEOUS IS INHERENTLY UNSTABLE

2. MULTIPLICATION - INSTABILITY GIVES RISE TO DIFFERENTIATION AND HETEROGENEITY

3. PRINCIPLES OF SEGREGATION - HETEROGENEITY AS PROGRESS
   
   SEGREGATED PARTS MEANS THEY ARE SUBJECT TO DIFFERENT ENVIRONMENTAL FORCES
   POPULATIONS GROW UNTIL CHECKED;
   DRAWS ON MALTHUS BUT WITH A DIFFERENCE, NOT IMPENDING DISASTER BUT EVOLUTION
   

1. SIMILARITIES BETWEEN SOCIETY AND ORGANISM:
   • BOTH GROW DURING THE GREATER PART OF THEIR EXISTENCE - BABY TO ADULT, TOWN TO CITY; BUT UNLIKE COMTE, NOT JUST GROWTH IN KNOWLEDGE LEADING TO STRUCTURAL CHANGES; BUT EVOLUTIONARY SELECTION OF BEST ADAPTIVE FEATURES OF SOCIETY

   • BOTH BECOME INCREASINGLY COMPLEX

   • PROGRESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION OF STRUCTURE IS ACCOMPANIED BY PROGRESSIVE DIFFERENTIATION OF FUNCTION
   
   
   
2. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SOCIETY AND ORGANISM
   • PARTS OF ORGANISM FORM A CONCRETE WHOLE WITH A CENTRAL CONSCIOUSNESS (GENERAL WILL?); PARTS OF SOCIETY ARE FREE AND MORE OR LESS DISPERSED (AND EACH PART OPERATES WITH THE SAME NEEDS AS THE WHOLE)

   • PARTS OF ORGANISM EXIST FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE WHOLE; IN SOCIETY THE WHOLE EXISTS MERELY FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE INDIVIDUAL

     "...each member of the race ... must not only be endowed with faculties enabling him to receive the highest enjoyment in the act of living, but must be so constituted that he may obtain full satisfaction from every desire, without diminishing the power of others to obtain like satisfaction: nay, to fulfill the purpose perfectly, must derive pleasure from seeking pleasure in others." (quoted in Turner)
     
     He accepted utilitarian principles found in the likes of Bentham and Martineau but with a slight twist, he gave a vital role to altruism looking at positive beneficence and negative beneficence (of doing good for the whole or less harm)

   
   
   
3. SOCIAL STATICS: HE CONTENDS THAT SOCIETY IS COMPLETELY DETERMINED BY CHARACTERISTICS OF INDIVIDUALS

   IN PRINCIPLES OF SOCIOLOGY (LATER) THERE ARISES A LIFE DIFFERENT THAN THE INDIVIDUALS, BUT IT IS PRODUCED BY INDIVIDUALS; WHOLE SERVES INDIVIDUAL

THE RELATIONS OF COEXISTENCE AND SEQUENCE IN WHICH SOCIAL PHENOMENA STAND TO ONE ANOTHER

BY COMPARING DIFFERENT SOCIETIES IN DIFFERENT STAGES ONE CAN DISCOVER TRAITS OF SIZE, STRUCTURE, FUNCTION AND HOW THEY ARE RELATED TO ONE ANOTHER

THUS, HIS BOOKS LOOK AT STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT JUST LIKE COMTE; BUT "UNCIVILIZED"; "CIVILIZED" BUT EXTINCT AND RECENT "CIVILIZED". (HISTORICAL METHODS) NATURE OF SOCIAL EVOLUTION

TWO WAYS TO LOOK AT THE PROCESS:

FIRST:

1. MOVEMENT FROM SIMPLE TO VARIOUS LEVELS OF COMPOUND (COMPLEX) SOCIETIES
   • SIMPLE - FAMILIES

   • COMPOUND - FAMILIES ORGANIZED INTO CLANS

   • DOUBLY COMPOUND - CLANS ORGANIZED INTO TRIBES

   • TREBLY COMPOUND - TRIBES INTO NATIONS

     WITH AN INCREASE IN SIZE COMES INCREASE IN STRUCTURE, AND DIFFERENCES IN POWER (WOMEN ARE LESS EQUAL IN OLDER SOCIETIES FOR BASICALLY NO OTHER REASON THAN LACK OF POWER), OCCUPATIONS OF MEMBERS. ALSO FUNCTIONS ARE DIFFERENTIATED

2. MILITANT AND INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY (AS ONE LOOKS AROUND CURRENTLY IN HIS LIFE TIME)
   • MILITANT CHARACTERIZED BY COMPULSORY COOPERATION OF MEMBERS; REGULATORY FUNCTIONS DOMINATE; STRONG STATE FORCES COOPERATION, AUTOCRATIC (DOES NOT TAKE INTO ACCOUNT ANYONE ELSE), AND RELIGIOUS

   • INDUSTRIAL SOCIETY CHARACTERIZED BY VOLUNTARY COOPERATION WHICH IS MARKET INDUCED; PEACEFUL, REPUBLICAN (PEOPLE OF SOME PORTION THEREOF, HAVE A SAY IN THE GOVERNANCE PROCESS

   • THE FINAL STAGE, RESOURCES MAY BE USED TO PERFECT HUMAN CHARACTER, - ETHICAL STATE BETWEEN GROUPS, CLASSES, SOCIETIES
     
     THERE IS EQUILIBRATION OF ENERGY

     THIS TAKES THE FORM OF STRUGGLE FOR EXISTENCE; CONFLICT BECOMES HABITUAL ACTIVITY

   
   
   (THE FOLLOWING TABLE IS FROM KENNETH ALLAN, 2005. EXPLORATIONS IN CLASSICAL SOCIOLOGICAL THEORY.)
   

   	MILITARISTIC	INDUSTRIAL
   DOMINANT INSTITUTION	THE STATE: THE NATION (INCLUDING ALL SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS AND ACTIONS) SEEN AS SYNONYMOUS WITH THE ARMY; POWER IS CENTRALIZED	THE ECONOMY: FREEDOM OF ECONOMIC EXCHANGE AND ASSOCIATION; PROFIT MOTIVATION; REGULATORY FUNCTION IS DIFFUSED
   SYSTEM EQUILIBRIUM	COMPULSORY COOPERATION	FUNCTIONAL EQUILIBRIUM MAINTAINED THROUGH INDIVIDUAL CHOICES
   RELIGIOUS FUNCTION	ORIENTED TOWARD LEGITIMATING GOVERNMENT -- DIRECT REGULATORY FUNCTION GOV'T IDENTIFIED AS GOD-ORDAINED HOMOGENEOUS RELIGIOUS TYPES LEGITIMATING POLITICAL MYTHS TEND TO CONTAIN ULTIMATE VALUES SOCIAL DEVIATION IS DEFINED AS SIN	ORIENTED TOWARD THE INDIVIDUAL -- INDIRECT REGULATORY FUNCTION GREATER SEPARATION OF CHURCH AND STATE HETEROGENEOUS RELIGIOUS TYPES FOCUS ON INDIVIDUAL SALVATION AND HAPPINESS
   STATUS STRUCTURE	GREATER STATUS DIFFERENTIATION WITH DISTINCT CATEGORIES AND CLEAR CEREMONIAL PRACTICES	OVERLAPPING AND VAGUE STATUS POSITIONS WITH UNCLEAR AND INFREQUENTLY PRACTICED CEREMONIAL DISTINCTIONS
   EDUCATIONAL FUNCTION	DIRECTLY CONTROLLED BY STATE WITH STRONG IDEOLOGICAL SOCIALIZATION	INDIRECTLY MONITORED BY STATE WITH EMPHASIS ON GENERAL AND SCIENTIFIC KNOWLEDGE
   MASS MEDIA	INFORMATION TIGHTLY CONTROLLED BY STATE	INFORMATION FREELY FLOWS FROM THE BOTTOM UP
   CONCEPTION OF INDIVIDUAL	INDIVIDUAL EXISTS FOR THE BENEFIT OF THE WHOLE; INDIVIDUAL BEHAVIORS, BELIEFS, AND SENTIMENTS OF INTEREST TO THE STATE	STATE EXISTS TO PROTECT RIGHTS OF THE INDIVIDUAL; DUTY OF INDIVIDUAL TO RESIST GOVERNMENT INTRUSION; BELIEF IN MINORITY RIGHTS

   
   
   SPENCER WAS VERY MUCH AGAINST SLAVERY AND FOR UNIVERSAL SUFFRAGE (until the end of his life when he seemed to back off from his support for women)

• FEAR OF THE LIVING - LEADING TO POLITICAL CONTROL

• FEAR OF THE DEAD - LEADING TO RELIGIOUS CONTROL

VIEW OF EVOLUTION - CHANGE FROM HOMOGENEOUS, UNSTABLE CONDITION TO HETEROGENEOUS, INTEGRATED, AND STABLE CONDITION

AS A RESULT OF THIS FOCUS AND USE OF ORGANIC ANALOGY, SPENCER CONCERNS HIMSELF WITH FOUR PROCESSES OR MAJOR CONCEPTS

1. GROWTH

2. DIFFERENTIATION

3. INTEGRATION

4. ADAPTATION

HOW DO THESE CONCEPTS FIT TOGETHER?

• EVOLUTIONARY MODEL
  1. MOVEMENT FROM HOMOGENEOUS AND SIMPLE TO DIFFERENTIATED AND COMPLEX SYSTEMS
     
     
  2. WHAT BECOMES DIFFERENTIATED?
     STRUCTURES WHICH DEVELOP AND PERFORM PARTICULAR FUNCTIONS -
     1. REGULATORY - (maintains political order and military) ORIENTED TO OUTSIDE ENVIRONMENT; FURTHER DEVELOPMENT LEADS TO DIFFERENTIATION AND LESS AUTOCRATIC SYSTEMS
        
        
     2. OPERATIVE - or SUSTAINING (concerned with production) LIFE BLOOD OF THE SYSTEM; EVENTUALLY WILL DOMINATE REGULATORY SYSTEM
        
        
     3. DISTRIBUTIVE - (links the first two, focus on transportation and communication) IN PART, REGULATES COMMERCE
        
        DIFFERENTIATION OCCURS BETWEEN 1 & 2 FIRST
  3. MOVEMENT THROUGH FOUR STAGES IS ALSO MOVEMENT TOWARDS GREATER PEACE AND HARMONY

  
  
  
• SYSTEM DYNAMICS
  1. INTEGRATION OF MATTER - DISSIPATION OF MOTION

  2. STRUCTURING OR INSTITUTIONALIZATION

  3. INSTITUTIONALIZATION AND CENTRALIZATION AND DECENTRALIZATION OF INSTITUTIONALIZED RELATIONS

  • INSTITUTIONALIZATION;

    INSTITUTIONS ARE A MORE STABLE PART OF THE ORDER;
    
    INSTITUTIONS HELP US MEET COLLECTIVE NEEDS (THEY SERVE FUNCTIONS);
    GIVING US MEANING, LEGITIMATION, AND SCRIPTS FOR BEHAVIOR;
    NOT REDUCIBLE TO PARTS (INDIVIDUALS), THEY ARE WIDER (EDUCATION FOR EXAMPLE);
    THEY RESIST MODIFICATION (INHERENTLY STATUS-QUO ORIENTED);
    THEY ARE MORAL - THEY CONTAIN A SENSE OF RIGHT, WE HAVE A LOT INVESTED IN THEM

    
    
    
    1. FORCES CAUSING GROWTH

    2. SEGREGATION & MULTIPLICATION OF EFFECTS

    3. UNITS BECOME INTEGRATED

    4. INCREASED ABILITY TO ADAPT TO ENVIRONMENT; COHERENT HETEROGENEITY

• C. SYSTEM PHASES

  DIFFERENTIATION LEADS TO CENTRALIZATION LEADS TO DEMAND FOR DECENTRALIZATION