British social philosopher, best known as the founder of British utilitarianism

Some narrative summery of Bentham

• Born into a wealthy Tory family
  
  
• Educated at Westminster school and Queen's College, Oxford at age 12. Educated as a lawyer
  
  
• Family wealth resulted in is ability to live as a writer in London.
  
  
• In 1768 Bentham read a work by Joseph Priestley (Priestley also had some influence on Martineau) where the notion "the greatest happiness for the greatest number" caught his attention
  
  
• Read works by Hume and Beccaria developing what we call utilitarian philosophy
  
  
• Blackstone's book, Commentaries on the Laws of England,(for you crim. majors, Blackstone's law dictionary is still widely used) was obsessed with the "rule of law" making it difficult for laws to be changed or added; read "A Fragment of Government"

• All law, according to Bentham, should be evaluated according to the principle of "utility".  A law should be judged good or bad depending upon whether or not it increased general happiness of the population.

• Published his most famous work, Introduction to the Principles of Morals (1789), the backbone of British utilitarianism

• Bentham pushed for a model prison (Panopticon) in the 1790s (Beccaria was of course known for his work in criminology)

• Bentham's first book was published in 1776, Smith's great work came out at this same time and it appears they did not see eye to eye. (Smith work was much more influential then Bentham's first book)

• Distinction between individual "hedonic calculation" (maximizing individual utility) as a basis of a positive theory {A theory that purports to describe behavior that is actually practiced as opposed to norms or standards that ought to be practiced.} of behavior, and
  
  social calculation (maximizing aggregate utility) as a normative theory {A theory that describes a norm or standard of behavior that ought to be followed as opposed to one that actually is followed.} of social organization.

• The motivating factor for human behavior was what we call the pleasure - pain (or mini maxi) principle

  Like Beccaria before him, Bentham argued that virtually all humans seek to maximize their "happiness", defined as the surplus of pleasures over pains. All human behavior can be measured by these motivating factors

  (he also saw what Homans will later look at as diminishing return, the more one has the less important "more" will be)

• The critical question for Bentham was whether the unhindered pursuit of individual happiness (Smith) could be reconciled with morality. (Same struggle for Martineau)    The only ethical principle he accepted was that increasing general happiness is "good", while decreasing it is "bad."
  Bentham dismissed all moral judgments based on criteria such as  "sympathy" (and Smith) or "intentions";  and  all abstract notions of social ethics like "natural rights" (social contract theory), "social justice"
  
  Actions are to be judged strictly on the basis of how their outcomes (consequences) affect 'general' utility, sum total of individual utilities of all members of a society. (Individualistic Paradigm)

• What is utility? See Chapter one in, "An Introduction to the Principles of Morals and Legislation." This will also tell you his conception of society (page 40 on the pdf file).
  1. Individuals are the best judges of their own happiness, (page 29 {or 60 on the pdf file})

  2. Non-interference by government. 

  3. Recognized social dilemma - actions of one individual often implicated the happiness of others

  4. Role of the State
     1. Do not let people suffer needlessly, guarantee a minimal subsistence (now we talk about minimum wage, welfare etc., England had the poor laws) and secure individuals (as well as their property) against the violence of others (criminal law) or foreign nations (defense)

     2. Encourage abundance, growth of both wealth and population. The dilemma was, a greater population will reduce wealth per capita, but a large population is necessary for defense.

     3. Equality of means.  Reallocation of income to reach equality is desirable. The rich will miss a dollar less than the poor will gain from the dollar - a greater utility! Don't squash incentives and productivity (remember his moral dilemma between individual interest and moral obligation to public good). Progressive inheritance taxes, was his solution. 

• Social utility was a bit more complicated. "greatest happiness for the greatest number"
  
  This centers more around a question of morality. Some might argue from this that; the ends justify the means!

• As noted, he dismissed all notions of "natural rights" or "social contracts" as-well-as notions of moral judgments based on criteria such as  "sympathy" or "intentions".

• Only consequences mattered.  Actions are to be judged strictly on the basis of how their outcomes affect general utility. See page 30 {or 69 in pdf}

• Felicity Calculus:

  "To a number of persons, with reference to each of whom the value of a pleasure or a pain is considered, it will be greater or less, according to seven circumstances: to wit, the six preceding ones; viz.
  

  1. Its intensity.    How powerful is the pleasure?
  2. Its duration.    How long lasting is the pleasure?
  3. Its certainty or uncertainty.    How guaranteed is the pleasure?
  4. Its propinquity or remoteness.   How close is the pleasure?
  5. Its fecundity.   Will this pleasurable activity generate additional pleasures?
  6. Its purity.    How pain-free is this particular pleasure?
  And one other; to wit:
  
  7. Its extent;
  that is, the number of persons to whom it extends; or (in other words) who are affected by it." (page 30)An Introduction To The Principles Of Morals And Legislation.    How many other citizens will experience this pleasure?

• Bentham was a great friend of James Mill and was the mentor of the Mill's son, John Stuart Mill, who continued the notion of Utility. (J.S. Mill was also connected to Martineau)

• Bentham also help found the University College London (although some say that is not true), specifically designed to be accessible to Non-Conformist (Non-Church of England), Catholic and Jewish students.  

• In compliance with his will, he was dressed and placed on display in a glass cabinet in the hallways of UCL. His estate as an endowment went to UCL and tens of thousands of pages of unpublished papers and manuscripts.