CSD 4200
Introduction to Fluency Disorders
| Cindy S. Spillers, Ph.D. |
Spring 2012
|
Public Perceptions Project 2002
| The class of 2002 continued the query into what
the general public knows and thinks about stuttering. They chose to focus
on the college student population in the 18-25 year age bracket. In addition
to finding out what other students think about stuttering, this class wanted
to give people some accurate information about the disorder. To that end
they developed a simple flier called Quick Facts About Stuttering that they distributed to each of their interviewees. Quick
Facts is located in another section of this website. In this section
you will find the Method and results from each section
of the interviews: Demographics, What
is stuttering, What causes stuttering, How can
a person who stutters handle their stuttering,
and What can listeners do to help. (All sections
were edited by the instructor.) |
Method
Author: Cindy Spillers
Interviewees
The interviewees consisted of 26 males and 26 females between the ages of 18-25
years, for a total of 52. All participants were college students.
Interview protocol
The student interviewers developed a brief interview protocol to use when talking
with participants. The first section of the protocol asked for basic demographic
information such as age, year in school, academic major, and personal knowledge
of anybody who stutters. This was followed by four open ended questions: What
do you think stuttering is? What do you think causes stuttering? What do you
think a person who stutters should do to move through a moment of stuttering?
What do you think listeners should do when talking to some one who stutters?
Quick Facts flier
The student interviewers developed a one page flier that presented some common
beliefs/misperceptions about stuttering and some basic facts to counteract the
misperceptions. The topics on the flier corresponded to the topics covered in
the interviews.
Procedures
Each of the 13 students in the class interviewed 2 male and 2 female college
students between the ages of 18-25 years. Interviews were conducted in person
and took between five to ten minutes to complete. The interviews began with
collecting demographic information such as age, academic major, etc., and then
progressed through the open ended questions. The student interviewers wrote
down each interviewee's responses and asked follow up questions as necessary.
After each interview, the student interviewers gave the respondent a Quick Facts
flier and pointed out some of the information that related to the subject's
responses.
Data analysis
The data underwent two levels of analysis. First each student compiled the
data from her four interviewees onto one interview protocol form. This level
of analysis involved the quantifying of information and as well as some qualitative
analysis. Copies of these first level results were distributed to all the members
of the class for subgroups of students to conduct aggregate analyses of each
section of the interview protocol. The aggregate analysis included simple nonparametric
statistics and qualitative information.
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Results
Demographic
Information
Authors: Rachel Hemke, Jill Hayden, Kristine Klinnert
The demographic information included age, gender, year in school,
major field of study, and personal knowledge of anybody who stutters. Fifty-two
students participated in the study. Half of the participants (n=26) were males
and half were females. They ranged in age from 18 years to 25 years with a mean
age of 21 years and a modal age of 22 years. Table 1 displays the demographic
information on ages of the interviewees.
Table 1. Chronological Ages of Interviewees.
Ages |
Percentage (n=52) |
18 years |
4% (n=2) |
19 years |
8% (n=4) |
20 years |
13% (n=7) |
21 years |
23% (n=12) |
22 years |
31% (n=16) |
23 years |
17% (n=9) |
24 years |
2% (n=1) |
25 years |
2% (n=1) |
Table 2. Academic Level of Interviewees.
Level |
Percentage (n=52) |
Freshman |
11% (n=6) |
Sophomore |
10% (n=5) |
Junior |
8% (n=4) |
Senior |
71% (n=37) |
The interviewees were all undergraduate students, with the majority
(71%) being college seniors. Table 2 displays the demographic information on
year in school. The academic majors of the participants covered a wide range
from art to engineering. The majority of participants (23%) were pursuing degrees
in education. Table 3 displays the demographic information on academic majors
of the participants.
Table 3. Academic Majors Represented by the Participants.
Academic Major |
Percentage (n=52) |
Education* |
23% (n=12) |
Psychology |
15% (n=8) |
Business** |
15% (n=8) |
Industrial Engineering |
11% (n=6) |
Science*** |
10% (n=5) |
Criminology |
6% (n=3) |
Communications |
4% (n=2) |
Exercise Science |
4% (n=2) |
Art/Graphic Design |
4% (n=2) |
Recreation |
4% (n=2) |
Social Work |
2% (n=1) |
Geography |
2% (n=1) |
*The Education category contained elementary, secondary, physical, and math
education.
**The Business category contained marketing, accounting, human resources,
and finance.
***The Science category contained biology, biochemistry, and molecular biology.
The final item in the demographic section of the interview asked
if the participant was personally acquainted with anybody who stutters. Forty-four
percent (n=23) responded yes, and 52% (n=27) responded no. Two people did
not understand the question so their responses were not tabulated for this
question.
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What Do You
Think Stuttering Is?
Authors: Jenny Merton, Mara Allgood, Jeanne Erkens
To analyze the results for this question, we read through the
first level analyses done by our classmates and looked for themes that emerged.
The themes that surfaced were: neurological problems, loss of motor control,
psychological problems, developmental problems, difficulty getting words out,
and repetitions. We then sorted all responses into these thematic categories.
Results appear in Table 4.
Table 4. General Categories of Definitions of Stuttering.
Definition |
Examples |
Percentage (n=52) |
| Neurological Problems |
Brain can't get words to the mouth. It's hard wired in the
brain. |
19% (n=10) |
| Loss of Motor Control |
Speech impediment due to no control over their muscles.
Voice box closes and tongue gets in the way of words.
Can't spit the words out in a smooth sentence. |
12% (n=6) |
| Psychological Problems |
Person is nervous and not confident |
8% (n=4) |
| Developmental Problems |
Starts at an early age when speech is not developing correctly
and no help or reinforcement is offered. |
2% (n=1) |
| Difficulty getting words out |
Not able to verbalize words they are trying to say.
Getting caught or hung up on words.
Can't get words or syllables out. |
36% (n=19) |
| Repetitions |
Stuttering is characterized by many repetitions within a
single sentence.
Repetitions of words and syllables in sentences. |
23% (n=12) |
Most respondents gave very general definitions of stuttering.
The most common response related to difficulty getting words out (36%, n=19).
A few people (19%, n=10) had a sense of a neurological component to stuttering.
Only one person identified stuttering as a developmental problem that begins
in childhood. These participants mentioned only the primary behaviors of part
word and whole word repetitions in their definitions. None of the participants
mentioned the primary behaviors of prolongations and blocks, nor did they
mention any secondary behaviors, covert features, or physiological features.
Stuttering involves much more than what the college students
who participated in this study believe. These results suggest that the average
college student has an idea that stuttering is a speech disorder, but does
not seem to have a very clear or accurate picture of that disorder.
What Do You Think
Causes Stuttering?
Authors: Bethany Werth, Maria Bataglia, Bryanna Otto
To analyze the results of the cause of stuttering, we read through the
first level analyses that our classmates provided and noted all of the causes
that people mentioned. This list appears in Table 5, along with the number
of interviewees who gave this response. Since some interviewees suggested
more than one cause for stuttering, there are more responses than subjects.
Table 5. Individual Responses to What Participants Believe
Causes Stuttering.
Beliefs about Cause |
Number of Responses (N=71) and Percentage of
Responses |
| Nervousness |
19 (25%) |
| Deficiency or imbalance of the brain |
9 (13%) |
| Physiological cause |
8 (11%) |
| Heredity/genetics |
7 (10%) |
| Talking too fast |
7 (10%) |
| Unknown cause |
6 (8%) |
| Psychological factors |
4 (6%) |
| Traumatic event |
2 (3%) |
| Premature birth |
2 (3%) |
| Lack of confidence |
2 (3%) |
| Sexual frustration |
1 (1.5%) |
| Inefficient communication skills |
1 (1.5%) |
| Laughing as an infant |
1 (1.5%) |
| Cleft palate or other abnormality |
1 (1.5%) |
| Environmental factors |
1 (1.5%) |
| Scared or stupid |
1 (1.5%) |
We then looked for general trends among the beliefs about cause. The causes
proposed can be split into two general categories. The first category consists
of internal and psychological factors (51%) and includes responses such
as nervousness, lack of confidence, sexual frustration, being scared, and
stupidity. The second category consists of physical factors (39%) and includes
responses such as deficiency in the brain, heredity, talking too fast, premature
birth, cleft palate, and environmental factors. Of all the answers given,
23% seemed to contain a small piece of accurate information such as an imbalance
in the brain or genetic inheritance; however, most responses contained limited
accurate information.
Many of the ideas presented by these interviewees have their roots in historical
beliefs that have been disproved or in folk beliefs. For example, the belief
that stuttering is caused by sexual frustration has a Freudian tone to it.
The idea that stuttering has a psychological or emotional cause may have
originated in Germany in the late 19th century. And the belief that laughing
as an infant causes stuttering is common in South African cultures and other
cultures.
While a definite cause of stuttering is not yet known, current research
suggests that stuttering has a large genetic component which may cause the
speech pathways in the brain to be less efficient. The results of this study
suggest that the average college student has a very limited idea about the
cause of stuttering and holds some inaccurate and outdated beliefs.
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How
can a person who stutters handle their moments of stuttering?
Authors: Mary Hertenstein and Jennifer Oeltjen
Table 6 contains the responses to the question "What should
a person who stutters do to move through their moment of stuttering?" Some
people gave more than one suggestion so there are more responses than interviewees.
The majority of responses involved slowing down (31%), followed by staying calm
and concentrating (27%). A few suggestions were made to get therapy (11%). One
interviewee added that the stutterer should do whatever the speech pathologist
told them to do during a moment of stuttering.
Table 6. Responses to What Stutterers Can Do to Handle Moments
of Stuttering
Suggestions |
Number of Responses (N=55) and Percentage of Responses |
| Slow down |
17 (31%) |
| Stay calm and concentrate |
15 (29%) |
| Stop and start over |
8 (14%) |
| Therapy |
6 (11%) |
| Ignore it |
3 (5%) |
| Don't try so hard |
2 (4%) |
| Strengthen muscles |
2 (4%) |
| Listener should finish sentence for them |
1 (2%) |
| No idea |
1 (2%) |
Three people suggested that the stutterer ignore their stuttering and one added
that they should not feel bad about their stuttering "because we all have
our problems." Two people suggested that the person who stutters should
not try so hard to talk because the harder they try to say something, the more
they will stutter. This response fits well with a common experience that many
people who stutter have: the harder they try not to stutter, the more they end
up stuttering.
Although speech therapy often teaches people who stutter how to talk more slowly,
the suggestion that stutters should slow down seems simplistic. Learning how
to talk more slowly involves intense concentration and practice. Telling a person
who stutters to slow down conveys the message that if they would just talk slower
and think about what they say, their stuttering would be solved. Stuttering
is more complicated than that.
In general, the interviewees seemed sympathetic toward people who stutter.
As one person said, "...We all have our problems." However, the responses
give the impression that managing a moment of stuttering is easy and all a person
has to do is to slow down.
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What Can
Listeners Do to Help?
The final question asked of the interviewees was "What should
a listener do when talking to someone who stutters?" Table 7 contains the
interviewees' responses. Since some people made more than one suggestion, there
are more responses than interviewees.
Table 7. Responses to What Listeners Can Do When Talking with
Someone who Stutters.
Responses |
Number of Occurrences (N = 73) and Percentage |
| Wait patiently |
36 (49%) |
| Pretend not to notice |
9 (12%) |
| Focus on the message |
7 (10%) |
| Don't make fun of the person |
7 (10%) |
| Help the person by finishing the sentence |
6 (8%) |
| Be attentive - maintain eye contact |
2 (3%) |
| Tell them to slow down |
2 (3%) |
| Rephrase the question or change the subject |
1 (1%) |
| Encourage the person |
1 (1%) |
| Have the person write out what they are going to say |
1 (1%) |
| Speak softly to ease the tense situation |
1 (1%) |
Two general themes emerge from these responses. First, the majority of responses
(85%) deal with listening patiently while the person talks and practicing basic
listening ettiquette. The other 15% of the responses offer specific suggestions
for helping the person get through a moment of stuttering (e.g. write out what
they want to say, finish their sentence, change the subject).
Professionals commonly suggest that listeners wait patiently, listen to the
content of the message, and show the same respect as they would for any other
speaker and the majority of the responses reflected these
guidelines. These results show that the average college student knows what the
preferred response to stuttering would be; however they also raise the question
of whether the interviewees would actually follow their own advice when faced
with a person who stutters. Although it seems socially acceptable and socially
preferred to wait patiently and listen to the content of the message, how many
of us can actually do that in real life? Stutterers often report that listeners
finish their words, tell them to slow down, or talk to another person who is
with them. Stuttering can be very uncomfortable to listen to, especially when
the listener does not expect a person to stutter. Although most people know
that the most appropriate response is attentive listening, when in a situation
and caught by surprise, what would their gut level response be?
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The University
of Minnesota is an equal opportunity educator and employer.
©2012Cindy S. Spillers. For concerns about this course contact the instructor
at cspiller@d.umn.edu
