Joshua Robert Leisen
December 2008
To attain a major in geography from the University of Minnesota of Duluth students are obligated to complete Geog5999: Senior Project in Geography. In this course each student formulates his or her own geographic research question, conducts primary and secondary research, and must formally present their findings orally and by means of a written research paper. This document serves as the written submission for my senior project as required for Geog5999.
INTRODUCTION
Angling has always been my favorite pastime and long before enrolling in Geog5999 I knew that I wanted to work on a project related to fish and/or fishing. I first toyed with ideas of doing a multi-species project and working at different scales (local, national, and global) but soon realized that I could produce a more coherent analysis if I focused on a single fish species.
My next task was to select the type of fish that I would spend several months working with. Hoards of anglers hit the water every year in pursuit of "game fish" such as bass, walleye, and trout. I do enjoy fishing for these species but I have gained an appreciation for the challenges and rewards of angling for those fish species that go unnoticed by most people and often fall into the categories "rough fish" or "trash fish". Among my favorite fish to catch is the common carp, Cyprinus carpio, a species that has generally been viewed as unfavorable in the United States.
My previous experience with C. carpio coupled with some preliminary research led me to the conclusion that the common carp would be an appropriate subject for a project in geography. C. carpio enjoys global distribution with close ties to human action both historically and today. Perceptions of C. carpio differ from region to region and the fish is utilized in a variety of ways which vary geographically. Based on the quantity of relevant information I was able to access I chose to focus my study on the common carp in the United States, England, China, and Japan.
The choice of these countries also opens the door for geographical analysis based on comparisons of spatial and cultural differences. England and Japan face greater spatial limitations due to their status as relatively small island nation-states. The United States and China do not face these challenges to the same degree. It might also be interesting to compare the opinions of carp between "Western" and "Eastern" cultures.
The essential research question I will be investigating in the course of this paper asks how regional histories of the cultural significance of the common carp and physical geographic factors have influenced the current distribution of Cyprinus carpio in the United States, England, China, and Japan.
METHODOLOGY
My senior research project is fundamentally qualitative and consists of primary and secondary research and cartography. The bulk of this report consists of my findings through secondary research efforts. I use information from the Minnesota and the Maryland Department of Natural Resources Web sites to introduce C. carpio from a physiological and biological stand point. I use New York Times archival articles to demonstrate the introduction and changing opinions of carp to the United States from 1880 to 1909. The remainder of sources used came mostly from journal articles on such topics as carp genetics, pisciculture, and history. Children's literature relating to common carp also offered insight as to the cultural importance of this fish.
My primary research consists of my own experience angling for carp, discussions about carp with people on internet fishing forums, face to face conversations with carp anglers from the United States and England, and an informal interview with the organizers of the Droppin' of the Carp annual New Year event in Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin, which I attended last year with this project in mind.
To illustrate the geographic distribution of C. carpio around the world I have designed a thematic map using Adobe Illustrator CS3 showing the status of common carp (native, invasive, not established, non-existent) by country using tabular data compiled by Fishbase.org and base map courtesy Cartesia Map Designer Series.
As there does not seem to be much or any literature analyzing C. carpio explicitly from a geographical perspective it does not make sense to include a literature review section separate from the body of my research paper. Rather I have organized my paper in such a way that information from existing literature is woven into my discussion of the common carp in each of the next six sections. I wrap up the paper with a geographic conclusions and an extensions section.
BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGY
There are species of carp other than C. carpio, and a variety of other fish species, that are often confused with common carp. These may include goldfish (Carassius auratus), other invasive Asian carp you may have heard about in the news recently (silver carp, Hypophthalmichthys molitrix; bighead carp, Hypophthalmichthys nobilis; grass carp, Ctenopharyngodon idella; and black carp, Mylopharyngodon piceus), and other fish species including North America natives such as various species of suckers, carpsuckers, and buffalo. Although these fish have been collectively and/or mistakenly referred to as carp, my project deals exclusively with C. carpio.
C. carpio is more popularly known as the common carp, German carp, or European carp. In the wild they can exceed 50 pounds and are usually golden-brown in color, have large scales, a long dorsal fin, and two pairs of barbels near the mouth (MN DNR 2008). The barbels are the surest way to distinguish C. carpio from other species that closely resemble it. Due to a large geographic range and long history of culture and artificial selection by humans there are a number of varieties of C. carpio (USGS 2005). Sometimes genetic variants are found in the wild that have a broken pattern of unusually large scales or no scales at all, known as mirror carp and leather carp respectively (MD DNR 2008). If the carp has only a single row of scales it is called a line carp (USGS 2005). The nishikigoi, or koi as it is commonly known as in the United States, is also a variety C. carpio, as are the Oujiang color carp and the long-fin carp. These species have come about through artificial selection by carp breeders.
DISTRIBUTION
Common carp can tolerate a variety of conditions but are generally found in lakes and slower flowing rivers with soft bottom sediments (MD DNR 2008). They can live in fresh to brackish water and thrive from 20? to 60? N and S. C. carpio is one of the first fish species to be introduced into other countries with human aid and now enjoys global distribution (MD DNR 2008). Fishbase.org (Froese 2008) has a comprehensive list of the status of carp in every country. Status of carp is shown in three categories: native, introduced, and not-established. Basically "native" means carp live in area independent from human help and have free-living and self-maintaining populations, "introduced" means wild populations of carp are established but only because at one time people brought them their, and "not established" refers to conditions where carp are found in a country but are not widespread in free-living and self-maintaining populations. From the tabular data compiled by Fishbase.org I created the following map (fig. 1).
C. carpio is native to the Caspian Sea region, East Asia, and the Danube River watershed (MD DNR 2008). They have since been introduced across most of the world for various reasons. Opinions regarding their introduction are varied and complex. The entire story behind the global spread of C. carpio is complicated and beyond the scope of this project so I shall focus on the introduction of carp into the United States of America.
CARP IN THE UNITED STATES OF AMERICA
The earliest reference I could find of C. carpio in the United States was an 1880 New York Times article titled "The Eating of the Carp", which states that the first carp was brought to the United States in 1876 and expectations were high that the common carp would become "one of the freshwater fish of the future" in America. Incidentally it was said that native fish (those resembling carp in appearance - probably suckers and buffalo) were "wretched fish, called carp through courtesy". Readers were also urged to have patience for a couple of years, until the distributed carp were grown, when "there might be enough carp in the market to supply the demand".
Over a dozen other articles appeared in the New York Times between 1880 and 1909 that document the change of public opinion about the common carp. In the early excitement over carp one author promotes the idea of introducing them into American waterways, correctly hypothesizing that carp would thrive in our major river systems. The author also claims that carp "is of great importance from an economical point of view" (New York Times 15 August 2008). Another New York Times article was published that October announcing that 1000 carp were ready for distribution and people could apply to receive up to five pairs of carp. This author warns customers that the carp should be grown alone in ponds as other fish will eat its ova. A complete reversal of this logic was only a decade away.
By the early 1890's C. carpio is found across the United States, owing to an efficient distribution pattern. Large quantities of carp were sent to distribution centers around the country and customers could also order them to be directly shipped from Washington D.C., where they were being raised under the shadow of the Washington Monument (New York Times 12 November 1881). Floods, subsequent migration, and anthropogenic events such as anglers releasing bait including C. carpio into new waters have allowed carp to spread further and today reproducing wild populations exist in every state except Alaska (USGS 2005).
By 1891 C. carpio was already becoming a nuisance. A California farmer voiced complaints that carp were invading his irrigation ditches and sucking roots out of the banks which damaged plants and caused erosion (New York Times 18 October). In 1896 a rancher from Oregon expressed interest in filing legal complaints against the United States Fish Commission for introducing carp because as his meadows flooded the carp would grub up all the roots and when the water receded he was left with mud flats in place of his fields (New York Times 19 May). Others around the country complained that carp were destroying native fish and waterfowl habitat and articles appeared with such titles as "German Carp to be Exterminated" (New York Times 28 July 1895) and "The Hated Carp" (New York Times 15 April 1896).
In general the carp still has a poor reputation in the United States. I have witnessed many anglers targeting "game fish" become disappointed when the fish on their line comes close enough to identify the as a carp, despite the enthusiasm they displayed up to that point. I suspect most anglers acquire this "game fish" versus "rough fish" or "trash fish" mentality through what they read and from what is passed on by the people that teach them to fish. On some Web based fishing forums I participate in I have found that anglers are expressing an interest in C. carpio as a "game fish" and groups such as the Carp Anglers Group and American Carp Society have begun to emerge.
Carp tournaments are being staged in American waters and in 2005 the American Carp Society was instrumental in bringing the World Carp Championship to the United States for the first time (Phillips 2005). The American Carp Society put up 1 million dollars for any angler who broke the New York State record of 50 pounds, 4 ounces during the tournament. No one took home that prize, but the team that won the tournament still went home with $100,000 (Phillips 2005; American Carp Society 2008). It appears that carp are becoming increasingly popular as a target for anglers. It remains to be seen, however, if C. carpio will ever catch on as a popular food fish in the United States.
There has never been a great demand for carp since the initial years of its introduction despite its aquacultural importance in other regions of the world. There is a small market for smoked carp, which can be found in some grocery stores, and some utilization of carp as food among certain immigrant groups. The major complaint about C. carpio today is their environmental impact.
Although some of the claims against carp at the turn of the 20th century were exaggerated (we still have ducks and bass) C. carpio can still be damaging to our native ecosystems, especially in smaller, shallow bodies of water where their populations are dense. Management today focuses on controlling populations to mitigate detrimental impact and prevention of further spread with regulations prohibiting the use of C. carpio as bait. As of yet there is no successful method for eradicating carp in large open bodies of water (Sorenson et al. 2006). Methods commonly most commonly used for smaller water bodies include the application of a plant-root extract called rotenone, which kills all fish in the pond and requires restocking and creation of barriers to prevent reinvasion, drawing down the water levels to induce winter-kill and decrease spawning efficiency, and physical removal through the use of nets (Sorenson et al. 2006). Netting is sometimes used in conjunction with chumming and timing (carp often form shoals in the shallows each spring as they prepare to spawn) and research is currently being done to see if C. carpio can be classically conditioned to respond to acoustic signals, with hopes that this method could be used to concentrate them in the wild for easier removal (Sloan 2008).
An investigation of the differing perspectives of C. carpio in the United States today illustrates the complexity of effects that something can have on people and on the environment when it is taken from one geographic area and placed in another. With C. carpio in the United States we saw opinions metamorphose through a process, from high expectations to unintended consequences and from public outcry against the carp to some eventual degree of acceptance as their permanency set in and new uses were discovered. As our world becomes increasingly globalized parallels might be made between the changing opinions of common carp and opinions about any other introduction to a culture, whether it be another biological organism such as the new invasive Asian carp or even a new technology or idea. I will now shift gears and talk about history of C. carpio in England, where this fish has been viewed in an entirely different manner.
CARP IN ENGLAND
Christopher K Currie explored the early history of carp in England (1991) and from his research it seems C. carpio was introduced to England circa 1350. The introduction of common carp to England came at a time when the aristocracy was yielding control of fish ponds and leasing them out more and more to the common people (Currie 1991). In the early days carp made prestigious gifts and were eaten by monks during lent (although salted sea fish was more popular). They were prized in England for their ability to grow large fast, their hardiness and subsequently ease of transport, and for the sport they provided anglers. By the 1530's the literature of that time indicates that carp were widespread and by 1600 they were the most popular freshwater fish in England (Currie 1991).
In England carp were and still are regarded as wise and clever creatures. Shakespeare mentions carp twice ("All's Well that Ends Well" Act V, Scene 2; "Hamlet" Act II, Scene 1). In "Hamlet" the character Polonius says, "See you now, your bait of falsehood takes the carp of truth." Isaak Walton wrote of carp in his book The Compleat Angler (1653). Walton refers to carp as "the most cunning of fishes…a stately, a good, and a very subtle fish" and "the queen of the rivers" (New York Times 4 December 1881). Anglers consider the carp a cunning fish and have developed an array of tactics and tackle with hopes of tricking them into a bite.
It is not enough for English anglers today to purchase a rod license from the National Rivers Authority. England's limited geographical space and long history of human occupation have led to the privatization of all ponds and lakes so that anglers must also gain permission from the owner of the fishing rights (the land owner whose property is adjacent to the water body in question). Usually a fee is paid to the owner in the form of a day permit or fishing club membership ticket (FAO 1995). England defines "game fish" differently than the United States. In England only salmon and trout are "game fish", while other freshwater fish (carp, pike, roach, bream, eels, etc.) all fall under the category "coarse fish" (FAO 1995). In England there are roughly 2.2 coarse anglers per year, and based on surveys by the National Rivers Authority (1995) 36% of anglers prefer carp, with 28% preferring roach and 21% preferring bream (FAO 1995). In 1971, however, the preferred species was roach (39%) followed by pike (29%) (FAO 1995). This shows that a significant change in angler preference has occurred in the past thirty years or so, and that carp have caught on recently as a popular fish to pursue in sport.
I have corresponded to English anglers on Web based fishing forums who have traveled to countries including France, Romania, Sweden, Canada, and the United States specifically to fish for C. carpio. Reduced fishing pressure on carp in these countries, coupled with less expensive licenses and fees, attract English anglers wanting a chance at a trophy sized carp.
In England carp is viewed mainly in terms of sport. More specifically it is a fish utilized for catch and release angling. It seems English culture views the carp as a symbol of cleverness and cunning, similar to the way that the owl is proverbially viewed as wise. In other countries C. carpio is important at a fundamental level. I will now discuss the use of carp as a food source and a symbolic icon in the People's Republic of China.
CARP IN CHINA
Aquaculture is becoming increasingly important as a world food source and according to the United Nations FAO the production of farmed fish doubled between 1984 and 1993 (1995). Cyprinus carpio production in 2004 was 3.4 million tonnes, the fourth most of any species after Pacific cupped oyster, silver carp, and grass carp (FAO 2006). The People's Republic of China supplies approximately one half of the total production of farmed fish (Korn 1996). In China methods of carp farming vary region by region but the dike-pond system stands out as one of the most productive agricultural systems in the world (Korn 1996).
The dike-pond system is a polyculture system, meaning that multiple species are reared together. The C. carpio with grass carp C. idella, silver carp H. molitrix, and bighead carp H. piceus. Each specie plays a role in recycling nutrients and self-cleaning the water and so the system is very sustainable and input is minimized (Korn 1996). The grass carp eats vascular plants, the silver carp and bighead carp eat plankton, and the common carp feeds on their waste and stirs up the bottom, which returns nutrients up into the water column (Korn 1996). The fish waste also fertilizes the trees and vegetable crops grown on the dikes and the pond system also attracts ducks. This integrated approach of the carp dike-pond system can, in certain regions of China, "increase the productivity of arable land by a factor of almost 100" Korn 1996). I have created the following flow chart to illustrate how this system works. Please keep in mind that it is a highly simplified model and the biochemical reality of this system is much more complex and dynamic depending on a number of variables and conditions.
Its importance has undoubtedly helped C. carpio become a popular subject in Chinese art. Dozens of mellow Chinese paintings featuring C. carpio can be found quickly via an internet search. Chinese mythology also reflects the significance of the carp in Chinese culture. I was able to find many Web pages (including Green 2008) that mention various versions of a Chinese tale called "The Legend of the Dragon Carp". The essential part of the legend says that a group of carp swims against a river's current and reaches an obstacle. Only one carp is able to jump over and is transformed into a celestial dragon, and the obstacle becomes known as the "Dragon Gate". The legend is basically an allegory for success gained through hard work. Traditional Chinese dragons are also said to have the scales of a carp. The fish itself can also be a form of art.
Variants of C. carpio have been artificially selected for in China for ornamental purposes. Oujiang color carp is a variant of the common carp that has been bred in Zhejiang province in eastern China for as long as 1200 years (Wang & Li 2003). This variety is usually red or white and may or may not have black spots (Wang & Li 2003). Another variety, originating in China's Guangxi autonomous region in southern China, is the long-fin carp, which was discovered in 1981 (Wang & Li 2003). Wang & Li performed a genetic analysis comparing Oujiang color carp, long-fin carp, and koi in China. They found that the long-fin carp had relatively high genetic divergence from both the Oujiang color carp and the koi, the Oujiang color carp exhibited the highest genetic diversity while the koi showed the lowest (despite displaying the greatest variety of colors and patterns), and that the Oujiang color carp and koi were genetically fairly similar (2003). This leads to some geographically interest conclusions. The first is that Oujiang color carp and koi probably share a common ancestor, and as Koi have only been bred in Japan for about 100 years while Oujiang color carp have been bred for 1200 years Wang & Li speculate that Japanese Koi originated from China (2003). Another conclusion is that the long-fin carp is least similar to the other varieties because it originated in isolated populations in the mountains 2000 kilometers away from Zhejiang province and the Oujiang color carp (Wang & Li 2003).
Although the koi may have its roots in China the Japanese have embraced them as an ornamental fish, a symbol of strength, and an economic asset. C. carpio has also been an important food source in Japan - a country where the opinion of carp, as with England, has been shaped by its geographical realities as a spatially limited island nation.
CARP IN JAPAN
Nishikigoi is the Japanese word for the variety of C. carpio referred to as koi in the United States. They have been bred in Japan since the 18th century (Ikuta & Yamaguchi 2005). Over 100 colors and patterns have been developed through careful artificial selection for desired traits (Wang & Li 2003). Koi are often released into park ponds, urban river areas, fountains, and private water gardens for purposes of "landscape conservation and beautification" (Ikuta & Yamaguchi 2005). Although this seems somewhat opposite the opinion of C. carpio in the United States, the koi has caught on here and in other countries as an ornamental water garden and private pond fish. A look through any pet store or pet section of any major bookseller will confirm the popularity of koi in America. Dozens of books are available concerning koi care and breeding.
Japan has actively promoted the international trade of koi (Ikuta & Yamaguchi 2005). In Japan koi contests, shows and auctions are important events (Ikuta & Yamaguchi 2005) and prized fish can sell for as much as $500,000 (Green 2008). Koi art is also popular, and koi tattoos are relatively common among westerners because of their beauty and symbolic meaning. In Japan the carp has become a symbol of masculinity, as it is said to bravely climb waterfalls (as in the Chinese "Legend of the Dragon Carp") and once captured awaits the fillet knife unflinchingly like a samurai awaiting a sword (Green 2008).
The common carp has become a symbol of strength and success in Japan, and as such has become an important part of Children's Day, which is celebrated on the 5th of May each year. During this day Japanese families fly one koinobori, or carp kite, outside the home for each son (daughters are celebrated on the 3rd of March). But the carp is important in Japan for purposes other than ornamentation.
Japan is a relatively small and highly populated island and it faces geographic and constraints, including a lack of land suitable for producing large amounts of cattle and other large food animals. A large number of people need to be fed and with little space to produce it carp have played an important role towards the solution to this problem. They are the third most important species of Japanese aquaculture after eel and trout (Ikuta & Yamaguchi 2005). Carp have been cultured in Japanese paddy fields for over two thousand years, most of which occurred in the inland areas such as Nagano, Gunma, and Akita Prefectures (Ikuta & Yamaguchi 2005). These regions have otherwise lacked a significant source of animal protein resources and carp helped to fill this dietary void (Ikuta & Yamaguchi 2005).
According to Ikuta and Yamaguchi (2005) five major types of carp aquaculture have been used in Japan: 1) Paddy field aquaculture involves raising carp in rice paddies but this form has declined since World War II. 2) With irrigation reservoir aquaculture one-year old carp fry are put into a reservoir in April or May and are harvested each autumn. They grow from approximately 100g to 800g in this period. This type of aquaculture is usually operated by private companies and found in Fukushima and Gunma Prefectures. 3) Still pond aquaculture is used as well, mainly in Toyama Prefecture. 4) High-density flow-through pond aquaculture is a system where carp are packed densely and grown in a pool with river water running through. This works best where large quantities of clean river water may be utilized, including Fukuoka, Gunma, and Nagano Prefectures. The quality of the carp meat is high in this form of aquaculture. The high-density flow-through system has close ties to the silk industry, as silk worm pupa serve as an important low-cost feed. With the decline in the silk industry this system has declined as well. 5) Intensive net-pen aquaculture was developed in the large lakes (Lake Kasumiguara and Lake Suwa especially) and facilitates large-scale, intensive carp production for cheap. This system allows for rates of survival and feeding conversion efficiency. However due partly to the high density of carp in Japanese aquacultural systems an outbreak of Koi Herpes Virus killed most of the carp in Lake Kasumiguara in 2003 and spread relatively rapidly to other places in Japan, especially as Lake Kasumigaura region serves as a major source of carp stock (Ikuta and Yamaguchi 2005). Ornamental koi were also hit by the virus. C. carpio is also receiving attention from anglers in Japan.
As for sport, Japanese carp are often stocked for recreation by anglers as well and local fisheries cooperatives and private pond owners often collect a fee from fisherman wishing to fish in their waters (Ikuta and Yamaguchi 2005). A final aside about carp as sport in Japan is that a professional baseball team, the Hiroshima Carp, honors the carp by bearing its name.
CONCLUSION
In this paper I have discussed the diffusion of carp to select countries around the world. It is the role of humans that have allowed the carp to attain such a wide geographic range, and it is evident from a study of the cultural significance of Cyprinus carpio to different people that it is not only the fish themselves that move. Sometimes old ideas accompany the carp and are embraced as they are transported to new areas as when carp were brought from China to Japan or when they were first introduced to the United States. At other times the environmental and cultural realities of a place forge new ideas and opinions. This is what happened as Cyprinus carpio spread throughout America. The common carp is incredibly suited to thrive in our natural ecosystems but the carp does not harmoniously support the existence of all our native species. The cultural climate of the United States was not and for the most part is still not accepting of the carp as a source of food.
Perhaps Cyprinus carpio has enjoyed the effects of globalization more than any other fish. People have brought and are still bringing carp to new places as sources of food and as ornamental pets. Now thanks to the Internet ideas about carp are spreading rapidly. People around the world are sharing research and information about how to catch carp on rod and reel, how to manage invasive the invasive carp, the best methods for rearing them for use as food, and new findings about the biology and behavior of C. carpio.
My final semester is drawing to a close and so is this year. As a new year approaches perhaps you may want to join the people of Prairie du Chien, Wisconsin in spirit if not in person, as they celebrate the New Year with the Droppin' of the Carp. I had the opportunity to attend this event and speak with its organizers nearly a year ago and it was a fun and also informative event. Each year since 2002 a frozen carp named Lucky is lowered from a crane to celebrate the New Year. Organizers Tom and Cathie Nelson, with some help from their friends, thought a carp would be an appropriate object to represent the Midwest. The fishy New Year celebration features a "carp bowl" football game, an opportunity to kiss Lucky for good luck, a carp piñata for the kids, carp kites, a bonfire and live music, and a coronation ceremony for carp royalty. After the event Lucky is refrozen until the 5th of May (Japanese Children's Day), when it the carp is buried in "Carp Park" and a tree is planted over the spot. Perhaps this reverent treatment of Cyprinus carpio foreshadows the coming of increased importance of common carp around the world, just as it celebrates the coming of a new year.
EXTENSIONS
I had a lot of fun with this project and I hope you found this an enjoyable read. It would be useful to expand this project in both depth and breadth. An analysis of carp in other countries could be done, which would enable further comparisons of carp regarding opinions, ecological impacts, management techniques, angler preferences, and pisciculture methods. It would also be interesting to extend the scope of the project by researching other species in relation to these topics and to go into further detail about issues like management, pisciculture, and breeding. I would enjoy doing further research on carp management in Australia, the structure and economics of the World Carp Championship and other carp fishing events, and carp as food and a traditional Christmas time meal in central Europe.
To gain a better understanding of local opinions regarding carp a quantitative study might be conducted. For instance a survey could be developed and distributed at local bait shops and boat launches to acquire statistical data about angler preference and opinion on carp. Interviews with carp farmers, resource management officers, and anglers would add qualitative insight.
Interestingly I came across several different pieces of children's literature in which carp played a significant role and one could almost do a cultural-geographic project or paper on this. Some children's books I came across were A Carp for Kimiko (Japan), Carl the Christmas Carp (Czech Republic), and Carp in the Bathtub (a Jewish American story). Mythologies of carp also seem fascinating to me and would be fun to study as well.
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[Written by Rudolph Hessel, originally featured in Chicago Field.]
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