Speech is actual production of oral
language, each language has its rules on combing sounds to form
syllables and words.
Phonology - System or rules that govern
how phonemes are combined to make words
Phoneme - sound unit, phoneme is
smallest unit in a language that conveys meaning (p and b
are phonemes used to convey meaning between pig and big)
class of speech sounds, not a single invariable
entity
Allophones - variations of a
phoneme
k is not produced the same for
different context
/k/ in key produced more forward
than /k/ in cool
Phonemic - refers to abstract system
of sounds -idealized and abstract decription of specific
sounds
Phonetic - concrete productions of
sounds, actual production of sounds
Articulation - ability to produce sounds
in sequence by moving the articulators
Linguadental - produced by tongue,
contact with upper teeth
th (vl - think, vd -
them)
Lingua-alveolar - produced by raising
tip of tongue to make contact with alveolar ridge
t, d , s, z, n, l
Linguapalatal - produced by tongue,
contact with hard palate
sh,zh (rouge), ch, j (orange), r,
l
Linguavelar - produced by back of
tongue, contact with velum (soft palate)
k, g, ng
Glottal - produced by keeping vocal
folds open and letting air pass through, result is
friction noise
h
Voice - presence/absence of vocal fold
vibration in production
s (vl), z (vd)
t (vl), d (vd)
p (vl, b (vd)
k (vl), g (vd)
f (vl), v (vd)
th (vl), th (vd)
ch (vl), j (vd)
Acquisiton of Speech Sound Production
Summary of Aquisition Data
Cooing (vowel sounds) - 3 month
infant
Babbling( ba-ba, ma-ma, ga-ga) - 5 to 7
months
Vowels acquired before
consonants
Nasals among consonants (m, n, ng)
acquired earliest
Stops ( 3 and 4.5 years) mastered before
fricatives
p the earliest
Glides (2 - 4 years), w, are mastered
earlier than fricatives
Liquids (3-5 years), r, l, mastered
late
Fricatives and affricates 3 - 6 years)
mastered later than stops and nasals
Consonant clusters (tr) acquired later
than most sounds
Studies do not agree on when children
master speech sounds due to research methodology. Some use a
90% criterion, others use 75%
Description of Disorders
Description of Individual Errors
Omission - absence of a required sound
in a word position
boo for boot
Substitution involves the production of
wrong sound for the target sound
wadio for radio
Distortion is a sound production that
does not match its normal production
slushy s for soup
Articulation Disorders - Difficulty
producing sounds and sound sequences of language
(articulation)
Person with articulation disorder may
have difficulty with movements of vocal folds, lips, tongue,
jaw that are necessary.
Person know to say or what sounds to
use
May not have adquate control over
movements or articulators, causing inadequate sound
productions
Phonological Disorders
Difficulty with understanding and
implementing the underlying rules for producing sounds and
sequences (phonological disorders)
Person may not have developed adequate
rules regarding sound system
May interchange ch (shair for chair)
and sh (choe for shoe)
Persons demonstrates ability to produce
sound or sounds, but uses the wrong sounds
Distinctive Features
Each phoneme has its own distinctive
set of features in Chomsky and Halle's (1968)
system
Example: p (b)
- vocalic
+ consonantal
- high
- back
- low
+ anterior
- coronal
- voice (+ voice)
- continuant
- nasal
- strident
Fronting - sounds produced in front
of mouth are substituted for those produced at back of
mouth; alveolars are used in place of palatal and velar
sounds (tak for chalk; tum for come).
ASSOCIATED DISORDERS AND RELATED CAUSES
Functional Articulation Disorder - cannot
be explained on basis of some neurological damage, muscle
weakness or paralysis, or structural problem such as a cleft
palate.
Function does not explain the disorder,
it implies that an organic cause was not found
When no cause is known, the disorder may
be termed functional. Several disorders are associated with
phonological and articulation problems.
Development Impairment in Children
Children whose articulation resembles
that of a much younger child may be considered
"delayed."
Those whose articulation is
idiosyncratic are sometimes considered "deviant," but the
distinction between "delayed" and "deviant" is often
difficult.
Common phonological processes in
children with developmental impairment include stopping of
fricatives and fronting of velars.
What may have been considered cute in
childhood, may be viewed negatively in adulthood.
Language Learning Disabilities
About 60% of children who are hard to
understand have articulation as well as general language
deficits. They may use simpler and less grammatically
correct speech.
Intelligence is normal, but special help
is needed.
Hearing Disorders
Age at onset, degree and type of hearing
loss influence nature of articulation/phonological
impairment.
A history of otitis media in children
often results in later articulation/phonological
impairment.
Dysarthrias
Dysarthrias are due to neuromuscular
impairment caused by stroke, brain tumor, or disorder of
nervous system, resulting in poor coordination, weakness,
or paralysis of speech mechanism.
Developmental Apraxia of Speech (DAs) or
Developmental Verbal Apraxia (DVD)
Probable neurological
cause.
Errors are inconsistent, poor
imitation, vowel and consonant misarticulations, groping
occurs when producing sounds on command, rate/rhythm
abnormalities
Cleft Palate
Cleft Palate is congenital. Type of
cleft, age at time of repair, influence
speech.
In general, phonemes that require
intra-oral Pressure are affected: stops, fricatives,
affricates
Vowels are nasalized.
Individuals develop compensatory
articulations.
Other Organic Abnormalities
Lips
minor variations in size and shape
are not significant for articulation.
Teeth:
Open bite and missing teeth may
result in misarticulation
individuals often but not always
compensate for malocclusion.
Tongue
Ankyloglossia is short lingual
frenum or literal tongue-tie.
Glossectomy, surgical removal of
tongue will especially affect fricatives and
stops.
Tongue thrust, myofunctional
disorder, reverse swallow may affect sibilants and
tongue tip phonemes.
Hard & Soft Palates
Inadequate velopharyngeal closure
results in hypernasality and impaired stops and
fricatives
