WPCK lVg/$^=!q(]9ڎ[GdQ?'ʷ |iLv],Tv7ɻGGK!Oܴx= exX6q)1Ɠ"7D u.ĔY|Mx=|n? 4 juclI>K@#8]2}s}S%St}S`K*bC:§=.В6[,->)l *9K|\xf5 Ce邎؍.ܪ0(U{^<<@?B]"!xz`s_T` {N/+|xM%hd9N<BɴB-MA%0w>D- < zE8PrXTNYjД+=2 4Aг'/oVR 1#l!6ʻoTs:wܭ0''$&?Pզ0 c@4je 0:^  0~wJ4Nbq 0Ds 09cN N N 1 u N N E 1 72p 0 72q 72 72 N N N  m! #8 UN %ONUlW 72 0 0 72G 0 Ny 0Ia 0' 0sh# 0w* 0R+ 0+N|,|, 72~, 0, 0D- 1_.B/B/B/ 721 722 72G2 72y2N2 2 723 723N4 4=&>N9@9@9@9@9@9@9@9@9@9@ BCCC(C>C EQEeFJwFFIMK($USUS.,%a-- (.(3($ !USUS.,      0  Cu,@Q3|x(#$  0  (;3$2#  0  .3  0  3#37=CIQYag1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)0vCHeadOfSecFor the outline I give beneath the title of IA1(a)(i)1)a)?> ( ^$  0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (# `   .3  :. 0x i)?>  i)AppendixI?8HP DeskJet 830C Series Printer0(,,,,0(0(9 Z6Times New Roman RegularX b ($USUS.,    1    _Thecannibalwhoeatschickenbecauseittasteslikehumanflesh.Hewouldpreferthe  latter(hisGood)butchoosestheformer(outofempathy).Thus:cannibalismiswrongnot  inherentlybutbecauseofempathy. i)(7V$   .II  .ۀ   ( q^H$  0  0` (#(#   .E  ..ہ 0d ?> (O$ԁLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5 ($0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#2#(  a  )3  0h(#(#Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5WOREssay #Header3Header4Header5Header6(F$0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#0h(#(#2#(   )3  0h(#h(#($0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#2#  0  )3  0(#(# ($USUS.,    11    _Notewecanhave empathyfor!i.e.,anunderstandingofhowtodealwith!the  physicalworldinasimilarsense.  ($USUS.,    13    _Xxsquip,thatpeopleworrymoreabouttheprospectoflosingtheirlittlefingerthanof  floodsdrowningathousandpeopleinChina,assomevalidityhere.However,wemustalso  rememberthatthisexaggeratespeoplesindifferencetoeachother.Icandonothingtoalterthe  floodsinChina,butmyactionsmightwellaffectthelossofmyfinger. ($USUS.,    15    _Andeventhen,ofcourse,aconflictamongDickspersonasmightpreventhimfrom  beingabletostatethetruthofthesituation. w ($USUS.,    14    _SomeofthisisliftedfromAlmond(19xx)TheAppealsofCommunism.Itsasadbook,  really,inthatitlistseveryvarietyofappealexcepttheappealthatMarxisttheory(whichAlmond  insistsonreducingtoSovietstatesocialism)iscorrect!oratleastthatthereareverygood  reasonstoagreewithit,manyprofoundinsightsprovidedbyit.AclearexampleofColdWar t ideologytrumpingintellectualintegrity.Letmebeclearhere:IagreethatMarxisttheoryhas `  manyappeals,thatMarxistsarenotalwaysHeroesoftheRevolution.AllImobjectingtoit d Almondscompletefailuretoevenmentionthemostobviouspossibility.Itremindsmeoftheold P jokeabouttwopsychotherapistswhomeeteachotheronthestreet. Hi,there;howareyou < doing?saysthefirstpsychotherapist. Prettygood,thanks,especiallywiththisniceweather (  werehaving,repliesthesecond. Hmm,saysthefirstpsychotherapistastheypart, Iwonder   whathemeantbythat?ToAlmond,astothepsychotherapist,nothingcanbewhatitseems. i ($USUS.,    10    _LetmenotethebriefstatementofHabermasstheoryofcommunication:wearealways  alreadyinthepositionofbeingabletomakecontingentclaimsandofassertingthemabsolutely.  (Ihavebeenlookingforthisstatementforseveralyears,andIhavebeenunabletofindit,either  amongHabermasswritingsorthesecondaryliterature.Ifthereaderknowswheretofindit, t pleaseletmeknow.Butevenintheworstcase!say,Idreamedit!,Iamwillingtostandbehind ` itasanaccuratecharacterizationofHabermassposition.)Thisstatementsetsoffbellsandsirens L  amongmyfriends,whoimmediatelyleaptotheconclusionthatwithitsreferencetoabsolute 8  statement,thisisajustificationofsomekindoffascism(orinterpersonalrudenessatthevery $ t least).Notatall.Itmeansonlythateventhoughwerecognizethatourvalidityclaimsmightturn  ` outtobeunfounded,wecannotcommunicatewithoutmakingtheassumptionthatwhatwesay  L  hasvalidityfortheotherpersonaswell.Wedonthaveto(andshouldnt)phraseourstatements  8  astotalitariandictates;wecan(andshould)acknowledgethatwerecognizetheircontingency. $  Butthefactremainsthatwecannotescapethisposition,stuckdialecticallybetweencontingency   andinterpersonalvalidity.WhenIwritetheseessays,Irecognize(probablymorethanisgoodfor   me)thatImaybewrong,andyetIhavenoalternativebuttostatemybeliefthatwhatIsayistrue   foryoualso.(O;$0  2#  a  .3  0` (#(#(b$0  0` (#(#2#   .3  0 ` (#` (#(xir$0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#2#(  0  )3  0 (# (# i)({$0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#2#  a  )3  0p(#(#(F$0  0` (#(#0 ` (#` (#0 (# (#0h(#(#0h(#h(#0(#(#0p(#(#2#     )3  0p(#p(#  789)/0=s37;?CGKOS-*+x  ($USUS.,    12    _Peoplewhoareunabletoempathizeweconsidermentallyill!autistic,orsociopathic,or  psychopathic,andsoon.Sometheoristsholdthatpeopleactwithouttakingotherssensesofthe  Goodintoaccountexceptinastrategicway,butthisisdifferentfromclaimingthateveryoneis  autisticorsociopathic.(See4` &O  5  Chapter76&O  7 ).) i)?>  i)?>   ($USUS.,    2    _Habermas,ofcourse,wouldpointoutthat theagreementisnotsomuchaninnovation  asitisapresuppositionofspeechitself. i)?>   ($USUS.,    16    _[xxHereismaterialtakenfromanowvanishedessay:]Thereisaphilosophicalposition  called emotivismthatsoundsalotlikemine.Itisntmine,however,andthe_difrferenvce_Ԁis  important,soImgoingtotalkaboutemotionabitandhowitdiffersfrommyposition.  Emotivismholdsthatthereisnoautonomousdomainof moralitybutonlyonesemotions. t Anotherwayofputtingthisisthatthereisnorightorwrongexceptwhatwefeelemotionally ` goodorbadabout.itisntmoralrelativism,exactly,butitcertainlysaysthatifthereareany L  moralabsolutes,theycomefromemotionalabsolutes. 8    Ilikeemotivismforitsfocusononesexperience.Iwanttoacknowledgethatfullybefore $ t turningtomydifferenceswithit,becauseitsimportant.Inmyexperience,moraltheoryand  ` politicalphilosophyavebecomeremovedfromemotionandhaveaccordinglylosttheirway.  L  Thereisanolddescriptionofcertaintimesandsituationstotheeffectthat eventsareinthe  8  saddleandridemankind;Iwouldsaynow,inasimilarsense,thatargumentationisinthesaddle $  andridesus.Inbothdesc4riptionsthereisasenseofhumanexperiencebeinglost!orlostasa   guide,anyway,evenifitcomesalongperforceasaconsequence.Whateveritsfaults,emotivism   isdeterminednottolosethatsenseofourexperienceasourguide.     Mycomplaintaboutemotivismisthatittakesrawemotionassacred.*[*Imaywellbe   doinganinjusticetorealemotivistsbyarguingagainstthisidealtypicalposition.( Againstthis p ridiculouscaricature,theymaysay.)Ithinkmypointiswelltaken,however,evenifImarguing \ againstacaricature.IwelcomeenlightenmentfromthoseIvemiscast.] ($USUS.,    3    _Onesoverall,authenticsenseoftheGoodneednotembracethatintrojectedsenseofthe  Good,butitmustcometotermswithit.  ($USUS.,    4    _XxSidenote:Iaminterestedhereinthedirectiononecouldpursuethisinto  considerationoftheuseofactualforce,whichofcoursetheothercarries,evenifweonly  perceiveitthroughourpersonafication.Howdowedealwithourownpersonasthatthreatento  hurtusifthwarted?Whatexamplesarethereofsuchpersonas?Bulimia?Selfmutilation? D ($USUS.,    5    _Thisisanimportantpoint.Ifmoraltheoriesofdiversity,multiculturalism,andsoonfail  totakeitintoaccount,theybecometrappedinanirreconcilableconflictbetweenpositions.(This  isonespecificinstanceofthemoregeneralAgreementProblem,4\ &O  5  q.v.6&O  7 )Ineffect,theyarenot  treatingtheotherascapableofchange,changethatismeaningfulontheothersterms.Thisis t trueevenforanimals,perCharlie_Kreiner_scounselinghiscat. dTheAgreementProblem 4 ($USUS.,    6    _Idealwiththisinmyessayonevil,4^ L&O  5  q.v.6&O  7 xEvil G ($USUS.,    17    _SeetheAppendixon4a ,&O  5  theneurophysiologicalbasisofempathy6z&O  7 .Chapter7AppendixNeurophysiologicalStructures  ($USUS.,    8    _Thenaturalquestionarises:whatcan approvalmeanwhenthereareobviously  conflictingpersonaseachofwhomdisapprovesoftheother?Whatallowsmetoprivilegeone  personaovertheother?Imjustgoingtoblowawaythatquestionbysayingthat bookwriting  Stevegetstodecideinthisdescription.Thisisnotsimplyafacileanswer,however.If t  disapprovedofSteveweretowritehisownbook,hisdescriptionwouldreversethenamesof ` theheroandthevillainbutwouldstillbemakingthesamepoint.  ($USUS.,    9    _Thiswouldmakeaninterestingstory,whereeachofmypersonasisissuedabodyand  placedinsomelargecoliseumtofigureoutwhoIam.Atanygivenmomentmanyofthe  personaswillbeasleep,somewillbedeeplyinvolved,coalitionswillform,andsoon. ($USUS.,    7    _IappreciateRobinRuniaforpressingmeonthisissue. !USUS.,  _  8XXdd8September13,2002  A(# LEVEL:xx Ԉ   XX[Chapter2]#XX#   0    ˊXXHowDidYouGetinHere?!EmpathyandtheRepresentation  oftheOther#XXˊ#  d(#(# [URL:Empathy] p   (#33 SECTIONS(&perhapssubsections): H   (v03 "7;"  7;0  2v  I  3  0` (#(#  WhyEmpathize?7;݌4 ` (#` (# Ќ  "7;"  7;0  2v  II  3  0` (#(#  ASolipsistic,RelativisticMorality?7;݌ p ` (#` (# Ќ  "7;"  7;0  2v  III  3  0` (#(#  MoralityAsIntrojectionandCognitiveAccomplishment7;݌ \ ` (#` (# Ќ  "7;"  7;0  2v  IV  3  0` (#(#  CaseStudy:TheMoralStatusofPraise,Blame,Reward,Revenge,Shame,and H  Guilt7;݌4 ` (#` (# Ќ  "7;"  7;0  2v  V  3  0` (#(#  MoralityandAuthenticity:TheirInternalConnection/FundamentalIsomorphism7; ݌ ` (#` (# Ќ  "7;"  7; 0  2v  VI  3  0` (#(#  Empathyvs.Projection/Anthropomorphism7; K ݌ ` (#` (# Ќ  "7;"  7;$ 0  2v  VII  3  0` (#(#  CaseStudy:Cannibalism! #  1      7;$ Q ݌` (#` (# Ќ  AY) xdExA    8  Empathyisacurseevenwhenitisshortlived,andnotallthebadlawinEnglandcan g protectmefromit.U   8   ` "JohnLeCarr(1989:92)TheRussiaHouseC   8  Attimestherapistandpatientseemtobeconnectedbyatelepathicbondorseemto o haveaninterwovensharedpsyche.Thisdepthofconnectionhasalsobeenfeltby  ] mostpeopleoutsideofapsychiatristsoffice,whenonepersonisspeakingabouta K deeplymoving,important,andprivateexperiencetoanotherwhounderstandsby 9 makingfeelingconnectionstohisorherownsimilarexperiences,wheneachis ' sharingeventsthatcanbevisuallyimaginedandemotionallyfeltbytheother.   8  0`   0 ` `  ` "JeanShinodaBolen(1979:35)TheTaoofPsychology:Synchronicity   andtheSelf!    [Alternativeessaytitle:EmpathyAstheOntologicalGroundoftheRight;CognitionAsIts }#! _Structure]_ U% # Outline: -'}"% ! ! (#30" 3"   32#  1  .3  0    Empathyistheinternalizationoftheother.Itsautomatic;necessarytoourdealingwith )U$'  theworld(atahighlevel!beyondamerefleshymachine,asinthekneereflex,or d biologicalpreprocessing,asintheeye). 3݌<(#(# Ќ  " 3"   32#  2  .3  0    Whatweterm empathymightbetterbetermed empathyskill:everyoneempathizes,   butthemodelsbecomeelaboratedasneeded.ThisislikePiagetsideaofareflex   differentiatingintocognitivestructure.Theneuralbasisofempathyandthecapacityfor  ` elaborationarealreadypresent; Intelligencearisesasneeded. 3݌8 (#(# Ќ  " 3"   3'2#  3  .3  0    Onceinternalized,theotherbecomespartofoneself,andplaysthesameroleasanyother t  personainthedriveforauthenticity.Justassomeofmyownpersonasarerepressed,so L  alsocanIignoretheother!butthetensionofrepressionisstillpresentinbothsituations. 3'T݌$(#(# Ќ  " 3"   302#  4  .3  0    Moralreasoningis_then_Ԁatroottheplayingoutofonesinternalcognitivedynamics  arisingfromtryingtoresolvethecognitivedissonance(ifany)amongonesvarious p personas,nowincludingtherepresentationoftheother.Inthewaysorrelating H perspective,moralityisnotsomeexternalforceorlogicbutrathersomethingalways   alreadyinsideoneself.(Iwouldextendthistosaythatanyviewofmoralityasexternalis \ atleastwrongandprobably[evenifunconsciously]repressive.) 30]݌4 (#(# Ќ  " 3"   32#  5  .3  0    Whatneedsexplainingisnotempathyorempathyskillbutitsabsence(whenclearlycalled  " for). 3݌# (#(# Ќ  " 3"   32#  6  .3  0    TheDevelopmentofEmpathySkill:Wecangetbetteratourempathy.Weandoso %X" throughsimpleobservation.Wecandosowhentheothercorrectsourperception. '0!$ Correctioncouldincludenonspeechresponses,likemycatclawingmewhenIrollim l)#& overandstrokehistummy,orxxswithdrawalifIdontcall. 3݌D+$((#(# Ќ  " 3"   32#  7  .3  0    TheDevelopmentofMoralityandAuthenticity:Wealsobecomebetteratresolving -&* conflicts: Takingturns, deferredgratification,etc. 32݌d(#(# Ќ  " 3"   3z 2#  8  .3  0    Notethedistinctionbetweenmoralityandhowwegrowmorality.Speechis/hasbeenan < importantpartofourgrowingmorality,enablingustodevelopmoreempathyskilland   makingpossiblesuchmoralinnovationsas theagreement.H #  2      ׀Butmoralityitselfis   independentofhowithascomeintobeing.Inparticular,wecanactmorallytoward  ` anythingweempathizewith;speechisnotrequired.Speechallowsagreementsasone 8  formofmoralrelationship,butitisnotthewholeofmorality.Itseemstomethatthere t  areotherformsofmoralrelationship;whyprivilegeagreementstosuchanextentthatall L  elsebecomesnonmoral? 3z ݌$(#(# Ќ  Sowhatsortofthingismorality?Habermas,Benhabib,andmanyothersanswerthisquestion p onlyindirectly;wehavetoinferitfromhowtheydefinenormativevalidityandespeciallyhow H theydefinetheepistemicconditionsnecessarytoredeemclaimstosuchvalidity.Theyfocuson   discursivejustificationofnormativeclaims,andtheinferencehereisthatmoralityinvolves \ agreementswherebyreasoning,communicatingbeingscoordinatetheiractions. 4    Iwanttoproposeadifferentontologyofmorality,namely,anontologybasedonempathy.  " Inthisontology,moralityisabouthowIchoosetorelatetootherbeings,beingswithwhomIam #  abletoempathize.Suchempathyrequiresthreeelements.First,itrequiresthattheentitieshavea %X" senseoftheirGood.Moraldecisions,inthewaysofrelatingperspective,areaboutourattempts '0!$ tosatisfy(oratleasttakefullyintoaccount)allsensesoftheGood.Ifanentityhasnosenseof l)#& theGood,thenitcannotbetakenintoconsideration.Notethat cannotmeans notliterally d logically,inthesamesensethatwecannotadd thenumberoneand thesmellofposies. <   Second,empathyalsorequiresthattherebesomemeansofaccesstotheentityssenseof   theGood.Speechcommunicationisobviouslyonemeans,butnottheonlyone.Othermeans   includetheobservationofothervocalbehavior(criesofpainorpleasure)andnonvocalbehavior  ` (jumpingifstuckbyapin),onesknowledgeofsimilarsituations,reasonableprojectionofones 8  ownexperience,knowledgeofneurophysiologicalorbiologicalsimilarities,andsoon.Noneof t  these,includingspeechcommunication,givesusperfectknowledgeoftheentityssenseofthe L  Good,andwemustbecautiousintheiruse.Thusanimalbiologistsarecautiousabout $ anthropomorphization,anthropologistsaboutethnocentrism,psychoanalystsagainstprojection,  andsoon.Nevertheless,thesearethemeansofaccessavailabletous,andanymoraltheorymust p bedevelopedinlightofbutneverthelessregardlessofthiscaution. H   Third,empathyrequiresanintrojectionofanotherssenseoftheGoodasa(contingent)   personawithinmyself.Todealwiththephysicalworldonlyrequiresaninternalrepresentationof \ physicallaws.TodealwithentitieswhoareconsciousandpossesssomesenseoftheGood, 4  however,werequireaninternalrepresentationthatincludesthissenseoftheGood(regardlessof  " howwellweunderstandit).Thisinternalrepresentationrequiresustorelatetotheotherinthe #  performativeratherthantheobjectivatingmode.Thatis,weneedtograsptheintentionalityof %X" thebehavior,notsimplythemovementsofthisbodyasaphysicalsystem.Buthavingdoneso, '0!$ wepossessapersonathatwecandealwithaswedowithanyotherpersona!wecantalktoit, l)#& askitquestions,hearitsanswers,putourselvesinthatpersonassituationtothinkwhatitwilldo, D+$( orevensuppressourconsciousnessofitentirely.Thisthirdelementiswhatweusuallyterm -&* empathy.Itrestsontheprevioustwoelements,butempathysmotivatingforcedoesnotcome d untilhere. <   Empathy,then,isthe(inevitablyimperfect)fellowfeelingonehasforanother,andin   particularfor(whatoneimaginestobe)thatpersonssenseoftheGood.Itdoesnotmean   automaticadoptionoftheothersGoodasonesown,becausethatGood,embodiedinones  ` persona_fication_Ԁoftheother!usingthisspellingtodistinguishthetermfromtherelated 8   personification!isstillonlyonepersonaamongothers.M #  3      ׀Itbringstomeonlyitself;itcomes t  naked,asitwere,bearingonlyitsexistenceandhavingaforceonlyofHabermass unforced L  forceofthebetterargument.Nh #  4       $   Ontheotherhand,weneednotaccepttheotherssenseoftheGoodassacrosanct,evenin  itsownterms,anymorethanweneedacceptourownassuch._O #  5      _ԀWemaynotimmediatelygrasp p thenatureoftheflexibility,ofcourse.Afterall,weoftendontunderstandthatofourown H sense(s)oftheGood;stilllesswillweunderstandthatoftheother,whomwecanknowonly   secondhand,sotospeak.Thisgivesrisetotheillusionthattheotherisunreachable: Icant \ reasonwithyou.Itmaybetruethatinpracticeweareunabletofindthekeythatunlocksthe 4  rigidityoftheother(orofourselves,forthatmatter),butourcurrent,contingentinabilityneed d notimplysomeinherentirrationalityoftheother.] #  6       <   Theaboveshouldgosomewaytodifferentiateempathyfromapprovalorliking.d| #  7      ׀Ifindit   helpfultousetheparallelismbetweenempathyandauthenticity.Therearemanypersonasof   whichIdontapprove.b0 #  8      ׀Unfortunately,disapprovaldoesntseemtopreventmefromtakingon  ` thosepersonasalltoofrequently.Similarly,IthinkthatifIweretobeabletomeetthethousands 8  ofversionsofmyself,eachhavingoneofmypersonas,therewouldbeanumberofthemI t  wouldntlike.c  #  9      ׀Butneitherapprovalnorlikingisatissuehere.ThefactremainsthatIunderstand L  theirperceptionsandamthusinapositiontoworkoutmydifferenceswiththem. $   Insummary,then,empathyinvolvesanacceptanceoftheotherssenseoftheGoodon  termsneitherbetternorworsethanonesown. p  #         #A.I  .ۀ  WhyEmpathize?#AYA  >AԌ d Ќ    8  FirstIwanttothankmyparents,MarvinandSandraSontag.WhenIwrite,Iam < reallyspeakingtothem.*    8   ` "SherrySontaginSontagetal.(1998:491)    B BButwhyshouldIempathize?WhyshouldItakeothersGoodintoaccount?Myanswer,which   isdetailedatgreaterlengthin4 &O  5  theappendixonneurophysiologicalstructures6C&OD   7L@D,isthatempathy(or  h atleastthenaturaldevelopmentofempathyinresponsetonewinformation)isinfactautomatic, @  wiredintous.Whatneedsexplaining,infact,istheabsenceofempathy,notitspresence.My |  reasoninghereisasfollows.DealingwiththeworldrequiresthatIconstructaninternal T  representationofit!acontingentrepresentationofit,tobesure,butanunavoidableone.6 #  10      ׀ , Empathyistheautomaticcompanionofmyconstructionofaninternalrepresentationoftheother,  becauseempathysimplymeanstheabilitytorecognizehowtheotherfeels.2P #  11      ׀WhenIintroject x youasanecessarypartofcommunicatingwithyou,IhavetointrojectyoursenseoftheGoodas P _well.Withoutsuchunderstanding,wecannotdealwitheachother.@ #  12       d   Letmetaketheeasiestcasehere:myrelationswithareasoning,speakingfriend!say, < DickHudelson.WhenItalktoDick,hehearswhatIsay,butIaminfacttalkingonlytomy   internalrepresentationofhim: Dick. Dickunderstandscertainthings,believescertainthings,   isinterestedincertainthings,andsoon,andmyownbehaviorarisesinthatcontext.Inorderto  ` dealwithanyone,then,Imustconstructapersona. 8    SuchpersonasarelikethosediscussedinChapter1,withtwoexceptions.First,Ifeel t  theirvarioussensesoftheGoodwithlessimmediacy,relativetotheotherpersonas,inthatIwill L  notfeelitslossorabsenceaskeenly.3@ #  13      ׀Second,itismuchharderformetounderstandDicks! $ therealDicks!senseoftheGoodthanitistounderstandmyown,evengiventheneurotic  dissociationamongmyownpersonas,asdiscussedinChapter1.Dickcansay,forexample,that p helikesMarxstheory,butwhatdoesthatreallymean?!Marxscommitmenttoeliminate H oppression?histheoryofcapitalismscrisis?theeleganceofhisprose?hisprovidingDickan   excusetoposeasaradical?5  #  14      ׀Somecombinationofthese?Inmymind, DicklikesMarxforthe \ firstreason(andmaybeabitthesecondreasonalso),andIhavealotofancillaryinformation d aboutDicktobackupthisassumption,butIcannotknowforsureuntilIraisetheissuedirectly < withhim.4 #  15           Thesedifferencesmeanthatrelativetointrapersonalintegrity,itismucheasiertodisrupt   interpersonalmorality.MistakesaboutthespecificsoftheothersGood,deliberategameplaying  ` bytheother,unrecognizedshiftsinmyortheothersGood(dueeithertorealdevelopmentorto 8  lackofauthenticity)!allofthesecanconfuseinterpersonalmoralityevenbetweentheclosestof t  friends. L    Nevertheless:theexistenceoftheothersintrojectedpersonameans,justasinthedance $ ofauthenticity(theongoinginteractionofonesownpersonaswithintheprocessofcomingto  authenticity),thattheothercanneverquitebesilenced.AslongasIhavetodealwithyou,or p evencontemplatedoingso,yourintrojectedpersonacanmakeitselffelt. H   Idontmeanthateverythingwillalwaysturnoutwell,thatIcantoppressyouandrepress   myintrojectionofyou.Thisalreadycananddoesoccurinthedanceofauthenticityofeachofus; \ whenweaddtheadditionalseparationbetweendifferentpeople!theignoranceofeachothers 4  truesenseoftheGood!andthepossibilityofphysical/socialrepression,thedanceofempathyis  " justthatmuchmorecomplex.AllthatImsayingisthatthereisasteadypressure,oratleastthe #  everpresentpossibilityofsuchpressure,forustodealwitheachothermorally,i.e.,investing d eachotherssenseoftheGoodwiththesamestatusasourown.Andjustaswecanrepress < variousfacetsofourownsenseoftheGood,soalsoareweabletorepresstheintrojectedother.     Weshouldalsorecognizethatthedanceofmoralitydoesnottakeplacedenovo;human   historyandtheinstitutionsandpracticesflowingfromitallowustointeractinwaysthathelpus  ` openourselvestoeachotherandthustoactmoremorally.Sincewebecamehomosapiens,we 8  haveinventedsuchpracticesastakingturns,queuing,dividingthingsequally,freespeech,the t  GoldenRule(presentinoneformoranotherinsomanyreligions,notjustChristianity),takinga L  vote,hearingbothsides,pitchingin,andsoon,allpracticesthathelpusrecognizeeachothers $ claimswithouttoomuchfuss.Toquantifywhatmustobviouslybeaqualitativejudgment,it  seemstomethat99.9%ofallsocialinventionsservethispurpose.Idontmeantoignoreor p downplaythepracticesthatstillkeepusapartincertainways,e.g.,theenforceddivisionoflabor H betweenthegenders,intergroupprejudice,theisolationofaconsumptionbasedeconomy,the   gameplayingandhostilityofacapitalisteconomy,andsoon.Alloftheseareimportantandneed \ tobeaddressed.Ifthisworkmeansanything,itmeansthat.Butwealsoneedtorecognizethat 4  thequiet,everpresentforceofourintrojectedothershasyieldedprofoundvictoriesformorality.  " Thesevictoriesdidnotcomeautomaticallyorinevitably,andtheyhavetakenhundredsormaybe #  eventensofthousandsofyearstoemerge,butifwelookbackathistorywithoutbeing %X" mesmerizedbytheevidenceofconflict,battles,hatreds,brokentrust,andsoon,andwithout '0!$ beingmesmerizedbyallthatplainlyneedstobedonebywayofcreatingamoralworld,wecan l)#& seethedomainofmoralitymovingimperceptiblyforward. D+$( # -&*      #Ka.II  .ۀ  ASolipsistic,RelativisticMorality?#Kaa  ~aԌ d Ќ  Mypositionisthatonesmoraldecisions,likethechoicesofauthenticity,areintheendthe < outcomeofonesinternaldialogueamongpersonas.Moralityisindividual:itiswhenIam   engagedindecidingwhatIwilldothroughadiscourseIholdamongmypersonas.Theontology   ofmoralityisthusintheendaboutindividualdecisions,notaboutagreementbetweenpeople.  `   HavingsaidthatinthemostinflammatorywayIcan,Iwillclarifytherelationshipbetween 8  myontologyandthatofdiscourseethicsandothermoralpositions. t   ? 789)/0=>(s3 " 3"   3e23  0    Iamnottakinganindividualistic,personalistic,orsolipsisticposition.ThisisnotAtlas L  Shrugged,andImnotAynRand.Inthewaysofrelatingperspective,moralchoicesdo $ involveotherssensesoftheGood!butonlythroughthefilterofonesownimperfect  graspofthem.Iamthusmakingonlyanexistentialpoint:wesimplyarestuckwithour p individualunderstandings,eventhoughwetrytomakethemasaccurateaswecan. 3ee݌H(#(# Ќ  " 3"   3h23  0    Iamnottakinganemotivistposition.Emotivism,asIunderstandit,seesmoralityasan   emotionandmoralchoiceasonesemotionalresponsetoasituation.Tosomedegree \ thatismyposition,exceptthatemotivismseemstoregardemotionalresponseasablack 4  box,whileI(will)haveagreatdealtosayaboutthecognitiveorganizationwithinthat  " box.Idobelievethatintheendourmoralresponsesaremysterious,inthesamewaythat #  Natureismysteriousintheshadowsbeyondthelightofourknowledge.Butto %X" acknowledgethismysteryoreventobelievethattherewillalwaysbesuchamystery!this '0!$  isnottosaythatwecannotshedlightonsomeportionofitandseekevenmorelight. l)#& Emotivismseemstosurrenderbeforethebattlehasevenbegun.L #  16       3hh݌d(#(#   " 3"   3Fm23  0    IamnottakingarelativistpositionthatallsensesoftheGoodandconclusionsaboutthe < Rightareandmustbeheldtobeequallyvalid.Idotakethatpositioninthatthewaysof   relatingperspectivedoesrecognizethatintheendwearestuckwithourownperceptions.   Butrelativismgoesbeyondthattragicrecognitionofourseparateness;asIunderstand  ` relativism,itembracesthisseparation,remainingunconsciousofthepossibilityof 8  meaningfuldiscourseorevenrejectingit. 3Fmsm݌t (#(# Ќ  0   ` Thoughstrictlyrequiredformypresentationhere,andmaybeevenappearingto L  fallintothepsychologicalfallacy,Imgoingtotalkhereaboutrelativismasacognitive $ accomplishment,despiteitsroughhewnstructure.IusetheexampleImmostfamiliar  with:therelativismheldbymanylowerdivisionstudentsinmyintroductorypolitical p theorycourses.AsIseeit,theirrelativismaccuratelyreflectsthetransitionalstatethey H findthemselvesin.Theyseethingsdifferentlyfromtheirparents/church/teachers,and d yettheyfindthatdiscoursewiththemovermoralissuesisimpossible!oratleastthey < haventfoundthekeyyet.Theirrelativismisthenacognitiveachievement,adeclaration   ofindependence,anassertionoftheirrighttothinkthingsoutforthemselves.Butin   anotherwaytheirpositionisincomplete.Becausetheirprimaryconcern(andtheirmost  ` difficultemotionalchallenge)istoestablishtheirrighttotheirownthinking,theyhaveno 8  freeattentiontoacknowledgetheimportanceofdiscourse.Andofcoursefamily/ t  religious/educationalauthoritybeingwhatitis,parents/ministers/teachersfindithard L  togiveuptheirdictatorshipandtakeupdiscourse.Soeventhoughthewaysofrelating $ perspectiveacceptsthateveryonemustreachtheirownmoraldecisions(andthatchildren  do,eventhoughtheymaynotrecognizethis!independencedoesnotmeaninevitable p disagreement),itstilltakesseriouslyothersperceptionsandotherssensesoftheGood.H(#(# AY) xdExA   Iwanttotalkaboutusingempathysimilarlyasthegroundofmorality.Mybasicargumentisthis: z  (#3s? 789)/0=>" 3"   3#y2#  1  .3  0    Weallhavethebiologicalcapabilityofempathy.Iarguethisbasicallyonthegroundsof *"  theabilityof(manyspeciesof)animalstolearnfromobservingeachother.Soevenata $" lowspecieslevelwecaninternalizerepresentationsofothers.Further,inhumans,weare %v$ capableofrecognizingthemasotheractors;weareselfawareandotheraware.(Imnot 'N!& sureIhavethelogicexactlyright,butImnotworried.)[Torgersonsays:Maybe )&#( MerleauPontycanhelp.] 3#yPy݌b+$*(#(# Ќ  " 3"   30|2#  2  .3  0    Weempathizetodifferentdegrees,butideally,empathyispossible. 30|]|݌:-&,(#(# Ќ  " 3"   3=}2#  3  .3  0    Whenpeoplemakemoraldecisions,then,theyaremakingtheminconsiderationofall d whomtheyhaveinternalrepresentationsof.Thusthedecisionissimilartothedecision < wemakewhenwechooseamongourownvariousGoods,inthatwelookforthebest   resolutionwecanfind,satisfyingallourdifferentsensesoftheGoodasmuchaspossible,   butpossiblysacrificingonetoanother.Thedifferencebetweenthatsituationandthe  ` moralchoicesituationisofcoursethatwerecognizethatwecannotsacrificeoneperson 8  foranother. 3=}j}݌t (#(# Ќ  " 3"   32#  4  .3  0    Iamnotclaimingtogroundmoralityhere;Idonttryto justifywhatevermoral L  principlesthatflowfromthisperspective,becausetheyarealreadyimplicitintheviewof $ thenatureofmorality.Theyaretryingtocaptureorstatewhatthesituationalreadyis. 3ƀ݌(#(# Ќ  " 3"   32#  5  .3  0    Wehavevariedrepresentationsofotherpeople,thevariationduetomanyfactors: p differenceincultureandotherlifecircumstance;lackofinformation;abuse(aswhen H childrenwereorderedatacertainagenottoplaywiththeBlackchildren). 3̂݌ (#(# Ќ  " 3"   32#  6  .3  0    Thiscouldbethereasonforpsychopathy:thelossofwhateverlittlecircuitmakes \ empathypossible.(Notjusttheabilitytoimitatebutrathertheabilitytobeself-and 4  otheraware.) 3݌ "(#(# Ќ  " 3"   372#  7  .3  0    Idontknowifempathycaneverbeexterminatedfromsomeone.Mysenseisthatmost #  ofthetimeitcannot.Inanycase,itseemsonlysensibletostartfromthatassumption;the %X" oppositeassumptiondoesntleaveusanythingtotry. 37d݌'0!$(#(# Ќ  [NotethatJaneGoodall(1988:202)talksaboutempathy.AlsoMorrell(2001).] D+$( # -&*      #}.III  .ۀ  EmpathyAsIntrojectionandCognitiveAccomplishment#}ˈ  Ԍ d Ќ  Empathyistheintrojection,i.e.theinternalrepresentation,oftheother.Itmeansthe < constructionofanewpersona.Empathyisntafeeling(althoughitmayencorporateorgiverise   tofeelings)butratheracognitiveaccomplishment.However,itisnotinneedofexplanation   itself,becauseitisanaturalfunction._ #  17      ׀Beyondthebasicleveltherearelevelsofempathy  ` (Selman19xx)whosedevelopmentneedstobepermitted,butthisisautomaticintheabsenceof 8  anycountervailingforce.(Allcognitivestructuraldevelopmentisautomaticaslongasthereis t  callforthenextlevel.Foranylanguageusingsocialbeing,suchacallwillbethere.) L  #     # .IV  .ۀ  CaseStudy:TheMoralStatusofPraise,Blame,Reward,Revenge,Shame,andGuilt# Z  ?Ԍ  Ќ    8  Failureisanopportunity.p   8  Ifyoublamesomeoneelse,thereisnoendtotheblame.^   8  Thereforethemasterfulfillsherownobligationsandcorrectsherownmistakes.L   8  Shedoeswhatsheneedstodoanddemandsnothingofothers.:   8  0`   "Mitchell(19xx:Chapter79).(` `  ^Rxx h #     #.V  .ۀ  MoralityandAuthenticity:TheirConnection/FundamentalIsomorphism#ѐ  Ԍ " Ќ  Myfatherwasinthenavy,soIvealwaysbeeninterestedinsailing..SometimesIgodowntothe #  marinaonParkPointandtalktothefolksthere.LastweekendIranintoanoddsituation.A %d" boatownertoldmethefollowingtale;somedetailshavebeenchanged. '