ÿWPC„ ›q·™jœ—¸€ÍæÈ5Y³T玴ä,6§ceÎDö½V¥b¤Oî4(Ë*žìlŽ;µ]RLTŸÂ< ÂüfдÚéØú÷Á¤aäg ¥æoc£Ô3„"„@³ŒÖu3o©hß ‘¬+é€9÷@þãb…ܺ¾¦¶†ÔEÜ%Í”t¿ŽV “» 4™hÅXWÄ.«JÇÆ°hÏË—X¶ÌEzeC|¥jÊlzªp”Âþ*qA‰¿Y:²bB§/1(üŽÑ<ÎáÐB:…’4&˜îäïíFE.K”CÒ|ŠŒ˜À+„Ô9I·”Ä×/U_­ý eù'&VUªÄ‰K13÷ÂéE»M‡ú<ÖÝ.¨9" Kç×~Já×rÿ 0¯n=6 64·+9¥ð;:¯>¸½ð¶?…—pµIÏ›R$7ß—ßêìƒpª…ÈÑ5:?˜õlõ/6_“Õ˜ ì9‹B5 zøÚ1ÊOXF&~“•„ ‡ÍÂ*õ¹Ÿ“ò¿cœ¥Cp`ù|éÝ—õ`¿,|ÞÃ/a ñ›.«3”©Þ)ŸaçæÕÓÒ¦aQT »‰¬ƒŠ~E¦ž?*ãOÜ™M o3f€ÓV‘‡¼ž[Ãþ++z•mf0¥wŽù—Üèx$úeœ4 0:Ø^  0#~wœ4 ´Ã 0#DÅ 1u N~N€N‚|„NNô#øå 0Ï­Ï 72|! 72®!Nà!Nâ!Nä! 1sæ!FY" mŸ##ɶ#UN& %Í& 0´Ó& 0LJ' 0ÛN( 0%—)) 0»À) 0ï{* 0 Nj+Ƹ+(~, 0D¦,Æê-Æ°.Æv/Æ<01Æ1 1_È1 72'2 72Y2E‹2Ž2 724ÆM4 0c7 0'wv7 0Ší7 0 w8 729 1ÑI9 72: 72L: 72~:N°:²: 0VÉ;³<*Ò<'ü<$#?G? 72f@˜˜@ 0D 1ÏLD 72E¤MEöñG 72çH 72INKIhMIQµL‘P³—R/JT·yW 0V0X D5†X B»X»X ASØXØX 0D+Y 0coY 1#ÒY 72õZ 0c'[ 72Š[ 72¼[Nî[£ð[$“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]“]·]$¸bˆÜcde¦vfœn}¸p5rÿ=t›Ýà0  àÔ2ý!ÔÚ  ÚXÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝConflict€Between€Goods݃7é;>kÝŒÐ(x` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é; "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;0Ýà0  àÔ2ý!ÔÚ  ÚXIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝAre€Goods€Hierarchical?݃7é;0]ÝŒÐd` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é; "ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;$Ýà0  àÔ2ý!ÔÚ  ÚXIIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝThe€Internal€Experience€of€Goodness,€Beauty,€Virtue,€etc.݃7é;$QÝŒÐP` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌßA€Y2) °°xdE°×xAßÐ Ø( ÐÓÓÌÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿¥ÝÚƒ.ÚIÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  ÝIntroduction€to€ð ðgoodðð€[lower„case]݃#¿¥ßÝóóÔ ò ÄԌР—#ç! ÐŒó óÝ  ÝAccording€to€Jean€Piaget,€humansðð€intelligence€in€all€its€glory€and€complexity€flowers€from€theÐ o%¿ # Ðsimple€seed€of€the€infantððs€reflexes.׃Q×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€I€look€at€ð ðgoodsðð€in€much€the€same€way:׃Sh×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€as€theÐ G'—"%ý  Ðfundamental€building€blocks€of€human€interaction.׃TÌ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Our€sense€of€what€is€good€becomes€muchÐ d Ðmore€complex€as€we€develop,€of€course.€€Infants€donððt€see€ð ðsocial€justiceðð€as€a€goodð!ð€they€haveÐ <Ø Ðno€conception€of€it€yetð!ð,€but€the€roots€of€social€justice€are€there€nevertheless€in€the€simple€factÐ  ° Ðthat€they€cry€when€they€need€something.׃UX ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€So€to€begin€with€Iððm€just€going€to€talk€in€simple€termsÐ ì ˆ Ðabout€goods.Ð Ä ` Ðà  àòòAs€I€use€the€term€in€this€work,€goods€[lower€case]€are€things€or€states€I€want,€and/or€actÐ œ8  Ðto€obtain,€and/or€welcome€if€they€arrive.óó€€My€use€of€ð ðgoodðð€requires€a€broad€and€flexibleÐ t  Ðunderstanding€of€it,€because€our€sense€of€what€is€good€shifts€as€we€develop,€moving€from€theÐ Lè  Ðinfantððs€obvious€goods€of€food,€warmth,€etc.€to€the€complex,€inhibited€balancing€and€meshing€ofÐ $À Ðthose€and€later€desires.€€The€following€subsections€unpack€these€statements€a€bit.€€SubsectionAÐ ü˜ Ðnotes€that€the€term€ð ðgoodðð€is€used€in€multiple€ways,€some€of€which€refer€to€elements€of€myÐ Ôp Ðconcept€of€ð ðgoodðð€and€others€of€which€are€distinct€from€my€concept.€€SubsectionB€deals€brieflyÐ d Ðwith€the€relationship€between€the€meaning€of€ð ðgoodðð€and€that€of€ð ðneedðð.Ð <Ø ÐÝ‚$HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚$Hê– Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ.ÚAÚ  Ú.Û€.ÛÝ  ÝOther€meanings€of€ð ðgoodðð€[lower„case]݃$Hê– ½ ÝÔ à0ÿ ÔŒÐì ˆ` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  Ýà  àIn€ordinary€language€we€use€ð ðgoodðð€in€many€ways,€some€of€which€are€appropriate€for€theÐ Ä ` Ðmeaning€I€want€to€give€it€here,€others€of€which€refer€to€meanings€that€are€not€part€of€mine.€€IÐ œ8  Ðtherefore€will€list€a€variety€of€ways€in€which€ð ðgoodðð€is€used,€setting€them€against€the€meaning€ofÐ t  Ðð ðgoodðð€I€want€to€use€in€this€work.׃V×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð Lè  ÐØ!  !ØÓ€ /6789 !"%)(+ts0 ;ÓÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£p$ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝThings€that€directly€satisfy€a€need€or€desire,€e.g.,€as€water€satisfies€thirst.€€If€I€am€thirsty,Ð $À Ðthen€I€want€water,€I€may€act€to€obtain€it€if€it€is€not€immediately€available,€and€I€welcome€itÐ ü˜ Ðwhen€I€obtain€it.݃63£p$$ÝŒÐÔp(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£ &ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝThings€that€bring€aesthetic€pleasure,€as€when€I€say€that€Duluth€water€is€good.€€I€am€notÐ ¬H Ðpraising€its€satisfaction€of€my€physical€thirstð!ð€any€relatively€uncontaminated€water€doesÐ „  Ðthatð!ð€but€rather€the€particular€pleasure€I€get€from€drinking€it€as€opposed€to,€say,€theÐ \ø Ðheavily€chlorinated€tap€water€in€Champaign,€Illinois.€€And€of€course€the€aesthetic€pleasureÐ 4 Ð Ðcan€also€arise€from€something€satisfying€no€physical€need,€as€when€I€say€that€something€isÐ  "¨ Ða€good€painting.݃63£ &M&ÝŒÐä#€ (#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£)ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝThings€that€are€useful€for€obtaining€something€else€that€is€good,€even€though€they€may€notÐ ¼%X" Ðbe€good€in€themselves.€€For€example,€I€might€not€find€a€shovel€to€be€good€as€a€physicalÐ ”'0!$ Ðobject€standing€alone,€but€I€could€nevertheless€find€it€to€be€goodð!ð€usefulð!ð€for€obtainingÐ l)#& Ðsomething€more€directly€good€when€I€see€it€as€a€means€for€planting€crops.݃63£)A)ÝŒÐD+à$((#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£d+ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝMost€things€are€not€useful€in€any€simple€sense€but€rather€have€multiple,€even€opposingÐ d Ðways€in€which€they€can€be€evaluated.€€For€example,€consider€the€several€differentÐ <Ø Ðcharacteristics€of€a€sweet€roll.€€First,€it€may€directly€satisfy€my€hunger.€€In€that€sense€it€isÐ  ° Ðð ða€goodðð.€€Second,€it€may€taste€good,€which€is€an€aesthetic€judgment€I€make€about€theÐ ì ˆ Ðpleasure€of€eating€it.€€In€that€sense€too€it€is€ð ðgoodðð.€€Third,€it€may€not€be€useful€in€attainingÐ Ä ` Ða€desired€state€of€affairs,€i.e.,€being€healthy.€€In€that€sense€it€is€(not)€ð ðgood€forðð€someÐ œ8  Ðlarger€purpose;€€without€making€any€moral€judgments€about€my€desire€for€this€sweet€rollÐ t  Ð(and€a€thousand€more!),׃@×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€I€can€still€recognize€that€pursuing€òòthisóó€good€over€hereð!ð€theÐ Lè  Ðthousand€sweet€rollsð!ð€will€have€consequences€for€other€things€I€value,€e.g.,€having€myÐ $À Ðclothes€fit.€€So€sweet€rolls€have€several€and€even€conflicting€senses€of€good:€€the€physicalÐ ü˜ Ðsatisfaction€and€aesthetic€good€of€the€sweet€roll,€on€the€positive€side,€and€its€effect€on€myÐ Ôp Ðstaying€healthy,€on€the€negative€side.݃63£d+‘+݌ЬH(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£l1ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝTo€indicate€that€something€is€of€high€quality,€meaning€in€whatever€respect€one€desiresÐ „  Ðsuch€quality€(e.g.,€a€good€shovel,€not€my€old€dull€one€with€the€loose€handle).݃63£l1™1ÝŒÐ\ø(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£Û2ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝSelf„assumed€virtues€or€accomplishments€to€which€one€aspires€(e.g.,€to€be€a€good€father).€Ð 4 Ð Ðð ðSelf„assumedðð€emphasizes€that€while€a€virtue€might€be€pressed€on€me€by€my€society,€theÐ  "¨ Ðimportant€issue€is€whether€I€have€accepted€it€as€my€own.׃Rh×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€It€can€also€mean€my€ownÐ ä#€  Ðstandards€of€virtue€applied€to€others,€as€in,€ð ðIt€is€good€of€you€to€come.ðð݃63£Û23ÝŒÐd(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£{5ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝPeople€or€creatures€performing€as€I€desire€(as€in,€ð ðGood€dog!ðð€or€ð ðGood€boy!ðð)݃63£{5¨5ÝŒÐ<Ø(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚63£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚63£‹6ÝÔ2+tÔððÔ3  Ôà0  àÝ  ÝAll€of€the€above€uses€of€the€term€fit€within€my€sense€of€the€good.€€One€use€that€does€notÐ  ° Ðfit€is€when€one€uses€good€to€make€a€moral€evaluation.€€I€say€more€about€this€in€the€nextÐ ì ˆ Ðsection.׃B|×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×݃63£‹6¸6ÝŒÐÄ `(#(# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ‚$HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚$Hêw8Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ.ÚBÚ  Ú.Û€.ÛÝ  Ýð ðGoodsðð€or€ð ðneedsðð?݃$Hêw8ž8ÝÔ à0à8ÔŒÐt ` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  Ýà  àMy€conception€of€the€good€is€related€to€that€of€ð ðneedðð,€whether€one€views€needs€in€termsÐ Lè  Ðof€either€Kelleyððs€or€Maslowððs€theories.׃H0×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Moreover,€it€is€formally€possible€to€create€a€one„to„oneÐ $À Ðcorrespondence€between€the€good€and€needs:€€for€every€need,€its€satisfaction€(or€means€ofÐ ü˜ Ðsatisfaction)€is€a€good;€€for€every€good,€there€is€an€underlying€need€corresponding€to€the€feelingÐ Ôp Ðone€experiences€in€its€absence.€€Despite€this€formal€possibility,€I€will€use€the€language€of€ð ðtheÐ ¬H ÐGoodðð€rather€than€ð ðneedsðð,€partly€because€it€retains€an€openness€I€value€(even€though€KelleyððsÐ „  Ðand€Maslowððs€need€theories€provide€powerful€descriptions€of€what€are€surely€important€aspects€ofÐ \ø Ðthe€good)€and€partly€because€the€language€of€needs€is€too€peremptory€for€my€purposes:€€it€tendsÐ 4 Ð Ðto€imply€that€the€need€is€absolute,€whereas€the€language€of€the€Good€allows€more€tradeoffsÐ d Ðamong€separate€goods.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Thatððs€my€perception,€anyway,€and€while€you€and€I€may€not€share€it,€atÐ <Ø Ðleast€you€know€what€I€mean€to€accomplish€by€choosing€the€language€of€the€Good.Ð  ° ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿X?ÝÚƒ.ÚIIÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  ÝThe€Good€[upper„case]€as€an€Abstraction;€€Its€Self„regardingness€and€Moral€Neutrality݃#¿X?’?ÝóóÔ ò w?ÔŒÐ Ä ` ÐŒó óÝ  ÝThis€section€is€specifically€concerned€with€distinguishing€the€sense€of€good€from€interpersonalÐ œ8  Ðmorality.€€It€does€so€by€emphasizing€that€the€sense€of€the€good€is€self„regarding;€€it€does€notÐ t  Ðinvolve€other€peopleððs€senses€of€the€good€and€thus€does€not€bear€on€interpersonal€morality.€€ThisÐ Lè  Ðis€the€first€of€maybe€three€key€sections€in€this€work.€€To€understand€the€rest€of€my€ideas€you€needÐ $À Ðto€understand€clearly€what€I€mean€by€ð ðthe€Goodðð,€particularly€that€it€is€defined€separately€by€eachÐ ü˜ Ðindividual€and€is€morally€neutral.Ð Ôp ÐÝ‚$HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚$HêCÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ.ÚAÚ  Ú.Û€.ÛÝ  Ýð ðGoodsðð;€€ð ða€Goodðð;€€ð ðone€of€my€Goodsðð݃$HêCCCÝÔ à0…CԌЄ ` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  Ýà  àA€ð ðGoodðð€denotes€any€one€of€the€goods€mentioned€above,€and,€to€extend€this€fully,Ð \ø Ðanything€welcome€to€me.€€It€denotes€the€quality€of€Goodness€without€specifying€the€specific€good.€Ð 4 Ð ÐIt€is€thus€a€broader€concept€than€a€ð ðgoodðð.€€A€ð ðgoodðð€is€certainly€a€ð ðGoodðð,€but€something€can€beÐ  "¨ Ða€Good€without€being€consumable€or€usable€or€even€physical€in€nature.€€For€example,€RawlsÐ ä#€  Ð(1971:ððxx)€uses€the€term€in€this€larger€sense€when€he€argues€that€justice€is€a€good€for€everyone.€Ð ¼%X" ÐJustice€is€not€a€physical€object;€€one€canððt€consume€it€or€use€it;€€and€yet€one€can€value€it€positively.Ð ”'0!$ ÐÝ‚$HêÿÝÐ l)#& ÐÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚$HêBGÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ.ÚBÚ  Ú.Û€.ÛÝ  Ýð ðMy€sense€of€the€Goodðð;€€ð ðmy€Goodðð݃$HêBG}GÝÔ à0¿GÔŒÐd` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  Ýà  àWhen€I€wish€to€refer€to€the€universe€of€my€Goods,€I€call€them€collectively,€ð ðmy€sense€ofÐ <Ø Ðthe€Goodðð€or€ð ðmy€Goodðð€or€ð ðthe€Goodðð.׃F×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Corresponding€phrases€would€be,€ð ðyour€sense€of€theÐ  ° ÐGoodðð,€ð ðher€Goodðð,€etc.€€This€collection€of€Goods€might€not€be€reconciled,€i.e.,€one€could€wantÐ ì ˆ Ðboth€to€eat€sweet€rolls€and€to€become€slender.€€But€oneððs€sense€of€the€Good€is€prior€to€oneððsÐ Ä ` Ðfiguring€out€how€to€live€a€life€satisfying€all€oneððs€Goods,€which€is€what€I€term€the€problem€ofÐ œ8  Ðauthenticity,€dealt€with€in€the€next€essay.€€Here,€I€simply€want€to€establish€a€term€for€theÐ t  Ðcollectivity€of€Goods€without€regard€to€the€feasibility€of€satisfying€them.Ð Lè  ÐÝ‚$HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚$Hê LÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ.ÚCÚ  Ú.Û€.ÛÝ  ÝThe€Good€is€self„regardingà€(#(#K(#` (#` (#à݃$Hê LGLÝÔ à0‰LÔŒˆÐ ü˜ ÐŒó óÝ  Ýà  àExamining€the€list€of€meanings€of€ð ðgoodðð€given€previously,€not€that€oneððs€Goods€areÐ Ôp Ðdefined€by€what€one€experiences€positively,€what€one€welcomes,€what€one€wants€to€possess,Ð ¬H Ðpreserve,€advance,€or€pursue,€and€that€which€one€finds€beautiful€and/or€meaningful.€€A€Good€isÐ „  Ðthus€entirely€self„regardingð!ð€located€in€the€world€and€often€assuming€the€participation€orÐ \ø Ðagreement€of€others,€but€still€centrally€defined€by€oneððs€òòownóó€experience€of€well„being,€satisfaction,Ð 4 Ð Ðpleasure,€desire,€meaning,€usefulness,€beauty.׃ h×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€The€same€is€true€of€oneððs€sense€of€the€Good.€€AsÐ  "¨ Ða€collectivity€of€self„regarding€Goods,€it€too€is€self„regarding.Ð d Ðà  àIt€follows€that€others€cannot€force€you€to€see€as€good€that€which€you€see€thus.€€If€youÐ <Ø Ðenjoy€eating€brains,€for€example,€and€I€am€nauseated€at€the€thought,€it€is€not€possible€for€me€toÐ  ° Ðforce€you€to€loathe€them€also.€€Even€if€I€were€to€get€God€to€thunder€that€She€will€strike€you€deadÐ ì ˆ Ðif€you€eat€them,€even€if€I€were€to€arrange€for€your€priest,€parents,€and€ten€best€friends€to€demandÐ Ä ` Ðthat€you€change€this€disgusting€habit,€even€if€I€presenting€overwhelming€scientific€evidence€thatÐ œ8  Ðbrains€will€infect€you€with€BSE,€the€most€I€can€accomplish€is€to€alter€your€ability€to€satisfy€thatÐ t  ÐGood;€€I€havenððt€changed€the€fact€that€you€still€like€brains.€€You€might€choose€to€avoid€them€forÐ Lè  Ðfear€of€BSE,€or€you€might€eat€them€only€in€secret,€but€you€still€like€them;€€they€are€still€part€ofÐ $À Ðyour€Good.Ð ü˜ Ðà  àNote€that€Iððm€talking€only€about€forcing€someone€to€change€their€Good.€€I€am€not€sayingÐ Ôp Ðthat€Goods€are€fixed€or€even€that€they€are€invulnerable€to€othersðð€persuasion.€€All€Iððm€saying€isÐ ¬H Ðthat€altering€someoneððs€Good€requires€wooing€instead€of€abduction.Ð „  Ðà  àAs€far€as€I€can€tell,€the€only€way€anyone€can€alter€anyoneððs€sense€of€the€Good€is,Ð \ø Ðcuriously,€to€help€them€to€experience€that€Good€more€deeply€and€richly,€becoming€aware€of€eitherÐ 4 Ð Ðits€different€components€or€its€integral€relationship€with€other€things.׃|×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€By€different€components€IÐ  "¨ Ðmean€coming€to€understand€the€experience€more€precisely€as€a€mixture€of€experiences€both€GoodÐ ä#€  Ðand€Unwelcome.€€For€example,€I€might€invite€you€to€pay€close€attention€to€your€experience€ofÐ ¼%X" Ðeating€brains,€with€the€result€that€you€discover€that€(say)€you€like€their€taste€òòandóó€donððt€like€theirÐ ”'0!$ Ðtexture,€or€perhaps€that€an€unpleasant€bitterness€underlies€the€yummy€flavor.€€Previously,€bothÐ d Ðexperiences€were€presentð!ð€good€taste€òòandóó€awful€texture,€or€good€taste€òòandóó€underlyingÐ <Ø Ðbitternessð!ð,€€but€you€had€not€paid€enough€attention€to€them€separately,€only€noting€an€overall,Ð  ° Ðfuzzy€sense€of€Goodness.€€Once€the€experience€is€differentiated,€once€you€know€more€preciselyÐ ì ˆ Ðthe€nature€of€your€Good,€you€have€more€ways€to€get€what€you€really€want€and€more€ways€to€findÐ Ä ` Ðcreative€ways€to€satisfy€your€and€othersðð.Ð œ8  Ðà  àBy€ð ðits€integral€relationship€with€other€thingsðð,€I€mean€pointing€out€the€òònecessaryóóÐ t  Ðconcomitants€and€consequences€of€your€sense€of€the€Good.€€For€example,€I€will€argue€later€thatÐ Lè  Ðgood€ends€cannot€be€achieved€by€bad€means,€that€the€bad€means€will€not€produce€only€the€GoodÐ $À Ðyou€seek€(and€may€not€produce€even€that)€but€will€also€produce€bad€results.€€You€may€still€chooseÐ ü˜ Ðto€use€those€means,€of€course,€but€your€sense€of€the€Good€has€been€changed,€in€that€the€meansÐ Ôp Ðcan€no€longer€be€seen€as€a€Good€equivalent€to€the€Good€one€intends.Ð ¬H Ðà  àNote€that€it€is€possible€to€change€the€òòsalienceóó€of€Goods,€either€positively€(advertising)€orÐ „  Ðnegatively€(condemnation,€repression).€€It€is€also€possible,€as€E.€E.€Schattschneider€(1960)€notes,Ð \ø Ðto€change€the€òòterrainóó€in€which€a€Good€is€pursued,€either€to€ease€its€pursuit€(e.g.,€governmentÐ 4 Ð Ðgrants)€or€to€place€obstacles€(criminal€laws).׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð  "¨ ÐÝ‚$HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚$HêS`Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ.ÚDÚ  Ú.Û€.ÛÝ  ÝThe€Good€is€morally€neutral:€€the€Good€vs.€the€Right/€Ethics€vs.€Morality݃$HêS`z`ÝÔ à0¼`Ԍм%X"` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  Ýà  àWe€will€discuss€this€more€fully€in€the€next€chapter,€but€to€prevent€confusion€in€thisÐ ”'0!$ Ðchapter,€let€me€note€here€that€it€may€or€may€not€be€moral€(ð ðRightðð)€for€me€to€pursue€things€IÐ l)#& Ðconsider€Good.€€Morality/€the€Right€has€to€do€with€peopleððs€expectations€of€and€agreementsÐ d Ðamong€themselves;€€the€Good€exists€independently€of€agreements€and€limitations.€€The€Good€isÐ <Ø Ðthe€subject€of€the€field€of€ethics;€€the€Right€is€the€subject€of€the€field€of€morality.׃D×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú15Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð  ° Ðà  àI€want€to€be€clear€that€I€am€not€arguing€that€people€care€only€for€themselves.€€Indeed,€aÐ ì ˆ Ðmajor€point€of€this€book€is€that€people€cannot€help€caring€for€one€another,€that€it€is€the€apparentÐ Ä ` Ðlack€of€caring€that€needs€explanation.€€I€am€distinguishing€the€Good€and€the€Right€simply€to€allowÐ œ8  Ðme€in€this€chapter€to€talk€about€authenticity€and€its€complexities€without€having€to€dealÐ t  Ðsimultaneously€(in€my€exposition€of€the€ways€of€relating€perspective,€not€in€the€reality€of€action€inÐ Lè  Ðthe€world)€with€the€separate,€additional€complexities€of€moral€considerations.€€Anything€I€say€inÐ $À Ðthis€chapter€about€oneððs€Good€remains€true€even€if€the€Good€is€my€desire€that€you€achieve€yourÐ ü˜ ÐGood.€€I€am€not€trapping€myself€in€a€ð ðphilosophy€of€the€Subjectðð.€€It€seems€obvious€to€me€that€weÐ Ôp Ðare€carriers€of€our€senses€of€the€Good€as€individuals,€but€this€observation€does€not€imply€that€weÐ ¬H Ðcare€only€for€ourselves.Ð „  Ðà  àThere€is€nothing€particularly€new€in€this€last€statement.€€Classical€liberalism€has€longÐ \ø Ðacknowledged€that€I€can€take€any€damn„fool€thing€I€want€as€a€Good.€€Care€about€myself,€careÐ 4 Ð Ðabout€youð!ð€I€can€choose€what€I€see€as€Good.€€What€òòisóó€new€about€this€will€not€become€apparentÐ  "¨ Ðuntil€Chapter2,€where€I€argue€that€one€cannot€help€but€include,€as€part€of€oneððs€sense€of€theÐ ä#€  ÐGood,€the€desire€for€the€other€to€achieve€h/her€Good,€even€if€h/her€achieving€it€conflicts€withÐ ¼%X" Ðthings€Good€for€oneself€alone.€€So€while€the€Good„Right€distinction€lets€me€temporarily€bracketÐ ”'0!$ Ðissues€of€the€Right,€the€latter€will€be€considered€in€Chapters2€ff.Ð d ÐÝ‚$HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚$Hê¶kÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ.ÚEÚ  Ú.Û€.ÛÝ  ÝOrigins€of€the€Good݃$Hê¶kÝkÝÔ à0lԌР°` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  Ýà  àWhere€does€oneððs€sense€of€the€Good€come€from?€€Is€there€some€root€Good€(even€if€onlyÐ ì ˆ Ðfor€oneself€alone)€from€which€all€else€follows?€€Can€one€know,€and€if€so€how€can€one€know,€whatÐ Ä ` Ðthe€Good€is€for€oneself€€and€others?Ð œ8  Ðà  àI€claim€that€these€questions€cannot€be€definitively€answered€and€to€that€extent€are€notÐ t  Ðmeaningful.€€They€seem€meaningful,€because€we€see€people€holding€onto€derivative€Goods€thatÐ Lè  Ðdonððt€satisfy€them,€but€therapeutic€discourse€is€[indicated?],€not€paternalism.€€Mention€somethingÐ $À Ðabout€Freudððs€comment€about€the€meaning€of€dreams€disappearing€down€as€if€in€a€navel.€€From€aÐ ü˜ Ðpragmatic€perspective,€there€is€no€way€to€prove€that€there€is€a€root€Good.Ð Ôp ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿3pÝÚƒ.ÚIIIÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  ÝThe€Good€is€Individual€and€Specific݃#¿3pmpÝóóÔ ò RpԌР„  ÐŒó óÝ  ÝThe€ways€of€relating€perspective€sees€the€Good€as€individual€and€specific.€Because€the€sense€ofÐ \ø Ðmeaning€is€individual,€each€person€has€her€own€sense€of€the€Good.€€Each€person€has€h/her€senseÐ 4 Ð Ðof€what€is€authentically€h/her;€€each€person€finds€things€meaningful€that€other€people€may€not.€€IfÐ  "¨ Ðthere€is€an€underlying,€universal€Good,€its€existence€can€be€proven€only€through€actual€practice,Ð ä#€  Ðwhich€comes€to€the€same€thing:€€looking€for€the€universal€in€the€individual€and€specific.Ð ¼%X" Ðà  àWe€will€not€only€assume€the€individuality€of€the€Good;€€we€will€also€specifically€reject€twoÐ ”'0!$ Ðcommon€views€of€the€Good€as€single€and€universal.€€The€first€of€these€views€is€the€utilitarian,Ð l)#& Ðwhere€the€concrete€differences€between€senses€of€the€Good€disappear,€subsumed€within€theÐ D+à$( Ðundifferentiated€concept€of€utility.€€The€utilitarian€approach€has€several€obvious€problems.€€First,Ð -¸&* Ðthe€utilitarian€principle€itself€is€ungrounded;€€it€expresses€one€way€of€considering€the€issuesÐ d Ðinvolved€in€a€decision,€but€it€is€not€self„grounding;€€it€is€unclear€why€we€oughtð!ð€morally€oughtð!ðÐ <Ø Ðto€consider€them€this€way.€€In€addition,€the€concept€of€utility€seems€hard€to€measure€objectively;€Ð  ° Ðwithout€such€objective€measurement,€utilitarianism€is€hard€to€distinguish€from€a€retrospectiveÐ ì ˆ Ðrationalization€and€justification€of€a€decision€made€on€other€grounds.Ð Ä ` Ðà  àA€second€view€of€a€single€Good€is€that€all€particular€senses€of€the€Good€are€merelyÐ œ8  Ðimperfect€approximations€of€some€true,€universal€sense.€€I€will€not€pursue€this€path€either,€becauseÐ t  Ðthe€assumption€is€unprovable,€and€even€if€we€knew€(or€could€meaningfully€assume)€it€were€true,€itÐ Lè  Ðhas€no€bite€when€it€comes€to€making€real€decisions.€€It€has€use€only€when€someone€tries€to€beatÐ $À Ðothers€into€submission€and€compliance€by€using€the€unprovable€claim€that€s/he€knows€theÐ ü˜ Ðuniversal€Good.Ð Ôp ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿ñyÝÚƒ.ÚIVÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  ÝTo€What€Extent,€and€in€What€Ways,€Is€Oneððs€Sense€of€the€Good€Malleable?݃#¿ñy+zÝóóÔ ò zԌР„  ÐŒó óÝ  ÝPeopleððs€sense€of€the€Good€is€malleable;€€it€can€change€and€is€always€potentially€changeable.׃~×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú16Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð \ø Ðâ âÝ‚ÒàÿÝÐ 4 Ð ÐÔ  Ôâ âÝ  ÝÝ‚Òàï{Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àòòÔ  ÔÚƒ.Ú1Ú  Ú:Û€.ÛÝ  ÝChange€over€time݃Òàï{4|ÝÔ à0Š|ÔŒÐd¸ (#¸ (# ÐŒóóÝ  Ýà  àà ` àI€may€prefer€listening€to€the€Rolling€Stones€at€one€age€and€to€Vivaldi€at€another.€Ð <Ø ÐOr€I€may€simply€feel€like€hearing€Vivaldi€today€and€the€Stones€tomorrow.Ð  ° ÐÝ‚ÒàÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚Òà~Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àòòÔ  ÔÚƒ.Ú2Ú  Ú:Û€.ÛÝ  ÝChange€through€understanding݃Òà~D~ÝÔ à0š~ÔŒÐÄ `¸ (#¸ (# ÐŒóóÝ  Ýà  àà ` àI€may€see€the€connection€between,€say,€the€loathed€exercise€and€my€weightÐ œ8  Ðdecreasing,€so€that€exercise€suddenly€becomes€a€good€for€me.Ð t  ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿#€ÝÚƒ.ÚVÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  ÝThe€Good€Is€Oneððs€Autonomous€Choice݃#¿#€]€ÝóóÔ ò B€ÔŒÐ $À ÐŒó óÝ  ÝOne€might€assume€from€this€multiplicity€and€malleability€that€the€ways€of€relating€perspectiveÐ ü˜ Ðassigns€a€reduced€authority€to€a€personððs€sense€of€the€Goodð!ð€that€is,€leaves€it€a€bit€unprotectedÐ Ôp Ðfrom€other€peopleððs€insistence€that€you€share€their€sense€of€the€Good€(e.g.,€that€you€convert€fromÐ ¬H ÐIslam€to€Methodism).€€But€it€would€be€incorrect€to€assume€this.€€Even€though€peopleððs€senses€ofÐ „  Ðthe€Good€are€malleable,€it€is€a€malleability€arising€from€their€internal€choice.€€The€use€of€externalÐ \ø Ðforce€to€change€someoneððs€sense€of€the€Good€is€self„contradictory,€since€it€violates€the€veryÐ 4 Ð Ðauthenticity€from€which€the€idea€of€the€Good€takes€its€meaning.€€Force€may€produce€theÐ  "¨ Ðsemblance€or€pretense€of€change,€but€it€cannot€produce€a€true€change.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú17Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€ð ðWhatððs€authentic€isÐ ä#€  Ðwhat€òòIóó€tell€you€is€authenticðð€is€the€self„contradictory€attitude.€€Something€can€be€oneððs€authenticÐ ¼%X" ÐGood€only€if€one€has€the€simultaneous€right€to€reject€it.׃€h×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú18Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ”'0!$ Ðà  à[Xx€Fold€the€following€material€into€the€next€section(s).€€A€paragraph€outline€will€helpÐ d Ðorganize€this.]€€It€is€true€that€the€ways€of€relating€perspective€allows€oneððs€Good€to€be€challengedÐ <Ø Ðin€a€couple€of€fundamental€ways.€€First,€the€perspective€does€not€support€any€sense€that€oneððÐ  ° ÐGood€is€beyond€challenge.€€While€it€is€always€we€who€make€the€final€decision€about€what€weÐ ì ˆ Ðconsider€Good,€we€can€never€be€certain€that€further€reflection€wonððt€alter€it.€€So€othersððÐ Ä ` Ðchallenges€to€our€sense€of€the€Good€are€always€a€propos,€regardless€of€oneððs€final€decision.€€WeÐ œ8  Ðcanððt€escape€having€our€Goods€questioned.Ð t  Ðà  àSecond,€the€perspective€gives€no€guarantee€that€oneððs€sense€of€the€Good€will€prevail€in€theÐ Lè  Ðnorms€we€agree€to.׃|×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú19Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Consider,€for€example,€the€moral€concept€of€rights,€meaning€Goods€whichÐ $À Ðmust€prevail€unless€other,€equally€important€rights€must€be€balanced.€€The€ways€of€relatingÐ ü˜ Ðperspective€never€sees€rights€as€absolute€moral€imperatives€but€rather€sees€them€only€as€socialÐ Ôp Ðconstructions€representing€our€current€guess€as€to€how€we€are€best€to€relate€to€each€other.€€ThisÐ ¬H Ðrelationship€is€primary€in€the€ways€of€relating€perspective;€€rights€exists€only€insofar€as€they€serveÐ „  Ðit.׃‚×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð \ø ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿ßŒÝÚƒ.ÚVIÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  Ýð ðThereððs€No€Disputing€Tasteððà@ìì*ìà݃#¿ßŒÝóóÔ ò þŒÔŒˆÐ <Ø ÐŒó óÝ  ÝWhen€I€talk€about€ð ðhaving€my€own€sense€of€the€Goodðð,€there€is€a€slight€implication€that€this€senseÐ  ° Ðis€fixed,€unchangeable,€even€sacred.€€In€particular,€thereððs€the€implication€that€we€canððt€challengeÐ ì ˆ Ðeach€otherððs€sense€of€the€Good.€€For€example,€some€people€believe€that€itððs€abusive€for€anyone€toÐ Ä ` Ðargue€that,€for€example,€homosexuality€is€a€sin€(or,€its€modern€parallel,€a€mental€disease).Ð œ8  Ðà  àClassical€liberalism€is€predicated€on€such€a€belief,€or€so€it€seems€to€me,€since€the€socialÐ t  Ðcontract€is€presented€as€arising€out€of€specified€(and€universal)€Goodsð!ð€life,€liberty,€and€property,Ð Lè  Ðto€take€one€formulationð!ð€and€political€discourse€is€presented€in€terms€of€compromise,€notÐ $À Ðconversion,€reconciliation€or€change.Ð ü˜ Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àððð ðThereððs€no€disputing€taste.ððÐÔp¸ (#¸ (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àððThis€attitude€is€parallelled€by€the€attitude€that€ð ðI€want€what€I€want,€and€I€donððtÐ ¬H Ðhave€to€listen€to€anyone€else.ðð€€In€other€words,€the€attitude€is€that€ð ðmyÐ „  Ðbeliefs€are€sacred.ððÐ\ø¸ (#¸ (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àððð ðTreating€people€with€respectðð€is€taken€(often,€I€believe)€to€mean€that€we€shouldÐ 4 Ð Ðnot€challenge€othersðð€deeply€held€beliefs.Ð "¨¸ (#¸ (# Ðà  àWhat€I€feel€is€what€I€feel,€regardless€of€what€I€ought€to€feel,€regardless€of€your€wishes€IÐ ä#€  Ðfeel€otherwise,€regardless€of€whether€you€share€my€sense€of€the€Good.€€It€is€true€that€my€desiresÐ ¼%X" Ðcan€be€repressed:€€made€so€dangerous€to€reveal€that€I€choose€silence€(like€gays€firmly€lockingÐ d Ðthemselves€in€the€closet),€or€even€made€subconscious€(like€homophobes€vehemently€denying€theirÐ <Ø Ðsame„sex€desires).€€However,€such€repression€does€not€change€but€rather€affirms€that€these€thingsÐ  ° Ðare€still€Goods€to€me.Ð ì ˆ Ðà  àWe€have€the€sense€of€some€things€as€sacred,€in€that€their€value€cannot€be€questioned.€€ButÐ Ä ` Ðtheir€value€derives€from€us;€€it€doesnððt€exist€independent€of€our€view.€€(That€would€be€the€tailÐ œ8  Ðwagging€the€dog.)€€Maybe€a€better€way€to€put€it:€€sacredness€is€expressed€through€us;€Ð t  Ðpragmatically,€itððs€our€experience€of€sacredness€that€grounds€our€understanding€of€the€sacred.€€IfÐ Lè  Ðthere€is€or€can€be€some€universally€acknowledged,€sacred€Good,€thatððs€how€it€reveals€itself.€€OrÐ $À Ðanyway,€thatððs€the€only€criterion€we€have.Ð ü˜ Ðà  àI€call€this€the€ð ðsacredðð€view€of€the€Good,€sacred€in€the€sense€of€untouchable,Ð Ôp Ðunchallengeable.€€But€note€that€classical€liberalism€arose€in€part€out€of€disputes€over€peopleððsÐ ¬H Ðreligious€Goods.€€Liberalism€became€possible€when€people€were€able€to€differentiate€the€Right€andÐ „  Ðthe€Good,€recognize€the€impossibility€of€negotiating€the€latter,€and€find€a€way€to€negotiateÐ \ø Ðbehavior€rather€than€beliefs.Ð 4 Ð ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿k›ÝÚƒ.ÚVIIÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  ÝNevertheless,€We€Can€Meaningfully€Engage€Each€Other€about€Taste݃#¿k›¥›ÝóóÔ ò Š›ÔŒÐ ä#€  ÐŒó óÝ  ÝAgainst€all€of€these€(or€to€clarify€all€of€these):Ð ¼%X" Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àððRespect€doesnððt€mean€agreement€or€even€public€neutrality.€€Indeed,€publicÐ ”'0!$ Ðâ âneutrality€is€disrespectful€insofar€as€it€derives€from€an€attitude€somethingÐ l)#& Ðlike,€ð ðThereððs€no€reasoning€with€those€people.ðð׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ðd¸ (#¸ (# Ðâ âà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àððWe€need€to€differentiate€forced€conversion€from€a€conversation€about€senses€ofÐ <Ø Ðthe€Goodð!ð€what€I€will€shortly€be€calling€ð ðtherapeutic€discourseðð.׃ƒ@×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú22Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€It€isÐ  ° Ðfear€of€the€former€(plus€an€inability€to€differentiate)€that€causes€theÐ ì ˆ Ðresistence€to€listening.׃L¤ ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×ÐÄ `¸ (#¸ (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àððWe€òòcanóó€clarify€or€change€our€sense€of€the€Good€when€we€see€its€consequencesð!ðÐ œ8  Ðfor€us,€and/or€for€others.Ðt ¸ (#¸ (# Ðà  àDespite€what€I€just€said,€there€is€a€sense€of€disputation€in€which€we€can€indeed€disputeÐ Lè  Ðtaste.€€That€sense€is€one€in€which€you€simply€share€our€sense€of€the€Good€with€me,€with€theÐ $À Ðpersuasive€force€lying€in€the€ð ðunforced€force€of€the€better€argumentððð!ð€Habermasððs€classicÐ ü˜ Ðexpressionð!ð,€even€though€the€ð ðargumentðð€referred€to€is€merely€the€claim,€ð ðSteve,€I€think€youÐ Ôp Ðwould€find€this€a€good€sense€of€the€Good.ðð€€Or,€lest€that€formulation€sound€too€circular,€here€isÐ ¬H Ðanother€one:€€ð ðSteve,€I€invite€you€to€try€my€sense€of€the€Good€on€for€size.ðð€€Such€an€invitation€canÐ „  Ðbe€fleshed€out€by€sharing€your€sense€of€your€Goodððs€coherence€and€by€elaborating€the€nature€ofÐ d Ðits€pleasures€to€you,€and€you€can€point€out€problems€you€see€in€my€sense€of€the€Good׃„×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú24Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€and€helpÐ <Ø Ðme€think€them€through.€€An€invitation,€not€a€demand:€€no€pushing,€no€haranguing,€no€emotional,Ð  ° Ðphysical€or€legal€pressure€to€threaten€my€autonomy€and€therefore€elicit€my€resistence.€€SuchÐ ì ˆ Ðtactics€come€from€confusing€the€Goodð!ð€what€òòIóó€wantð!ð€with€the€Rightð!ð€what€òòyou€ought€toóó€want.€Ð Ä ` ÐEven€though€you€may€have€the€most€loving€intentions€toward€me€in€suggesting€your€sense€of€theÐ œ8  ÐGood,€even€though€you€believe€my€sense€of€the€Good€is€doing€me€harm,€I€retain€my€autonomy.׃…T×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú25Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð t  Ðà  àÌà  àIt€may€be€useful€to€think€about€this€in€terms€of€admiring€a€painting.׃†Ì×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú26Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€I€canððt€make€you€likeÐ $À Ða€painting,€but€you€may€come€to€like€it€if€I€explain€what€I€see€in€it:€€the€nature€of€the€brushÐ ü˜ Ðstrokes,€the€choice€of€colors,€the€emphasis€and€deemphasis€of€certain€figures,€the€associations€itÐ Ôp Ðhas€for€me€(and€mayhap€also€you),€and€so€on.€€(I€donððt€actually€know€about€any€of€these€things,Ð ¬H Ðbut€I€can€pretend€I€do€here.)€€You€may€come€to€appreciate€the€painting€as€well,€perhaps€becauseÐ „  Ðyou€now€see€what€I€see,€perhaps€only€because€youððve€now€paid€enough€attention€to€it€to€constructÐ \ø Ðyour€own€admiration.€€Or,€of€course,€you€might€still€not€like€it,€or€might€like€it€even€less.€€I€canÐ 4 Ð Ðonly€hold€up€for€you€what€I€see;€€beyond€that€point,€itððs€all€your€experience.Ð  "¨ ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿‘¬ÝÚƒ.ÚVIIIÚ  ÚÛ€.Û€Ý  ÝEngagement€Can€Change€Either€Party݃#¿‘¬Ë¬ÝóóÔ ò °¬ÔŒÐ <Ø ÐŒó óÝ  ÝIf€you€hold€up€your€sense€of€the€Good€as€an€alternative€to€mine,€it€might€happen€that€you€findÐ  ° Ðyour€own€sense€of€the€Good€changed.׃‡×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú27Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€This€is€a€peril,€but€it€is€also€the€òòsine€qua€nonóó€of€humanÐ ì ˆ Ð(as€opposed€to€strategic)€communication.€€If€you€do€not€open€yourself€to€me€in€the€same€way€thatÐ Ä ` ÐI€open€myself€to€you,€then€we€are€not€meeting€as€equals.€€I€cannot€trust€what€you€say,€because€IÐ œ8  Ðcannot€assume€that€you€will€understand€me€well€enough€to€threaten€your€own€sense€of€the€Good.€Ð t  ÐIf€I€am€to€let€you€affect€my€sense€of€the€Good€deeply,€then€I€must€have€confidence€that€you€willÐ Lè  Ðtake€me€for€who€I€am,€not€distorting€your€knowledge€of€me€and€the€conversations€based€on€itÐ $À Ðbecause€it€threatens€you.׃ˆT×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú28Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð ü˜ ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôâ âò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÔ& ˆ ÔÝ‚#¿š±ÝÚƒ.ÚIXÚ  ÚÛ€. Û€Ý  ÝÔ% €I ÔThe€Mnchhausen€Trilemma€and€Our€Inability€to€Prove€That€Something€Is€Good݃#¿š±ê±ÝóóÔ ò ñԌР¬H ÐŒó óÝ  ÝThe€so„called€ð ðMnchhausen€Trilemmaðð€(Habermas€19xx:xx)€is€a€demonstration€that€it€isÐ „  Ðâ âimpossible€to€prove€by€formal€logicð!ð€i.e.,€deductively,€conclusivelyð!ð€that€something€is€Good.Ô'ˆ<&ޱԀР\ø ÐThe€argument€is€quite€brief.€€Ô_Ôßi€[›5%!`|6 Á& `€EÅšÁ& ttÙˆ ýÒQ¶ißÔ_ÔOne€justifies€something€as€being€Good€by€an€argument€based€onÐ d Ðâ âcertain€premises.€€These€premises€require€their€own€justification,€and€so€on.€€There€are€only€threeÐ <Ø Ðpossibilities€for€this€chain€of€justification:€€it€is€either€(Ô_ÔiÔ_Ô)circular,€or€(ii)infinitely€long,€orÐ  ° Ð(iii)broken€off€at€some€set€of€premises€that€are€not€themselves€justified.€€(See€Figure1.)€€None€ofÐ ì ˆ Ðthese€cases€provide€the€necessary€justification.€€The€third€case€offers€the€most€hope,€because€weÐ Ä ` Ðâ N(#N(#°(#°(#âcan€at€least€hope€that€weÐ œ8  Ðcan€find€premises€that€areÐ t  Ðbelieved€by€all,€in€whichÐ Lè  Ðcase€the€demand€forÐ $À Ðjustification€does€not€ariseÐ ü˜ Ðexcept€for€a€ScholasticÐ Ôp Ðconcern€for€whether€theÐ ¬H Ðclaim€is€then€ð ðreallyððÐ „  Ðjustified.Ð \ø Ðâ °(#°(#N(#N(#âà  àThe€third€form€of€the€trilemma€is€easily€mistaken€for€true€justification,€since€people€tend€toÐ 4 Ð Ðbelieve€that€the€premises€they€accept€are€so€obviously€true€that€no€one€could€possibly€disagree.€Ð  "¨ ÐTo€the€extent€that€others€do€disagree,€they€are€dismissed€as€crazy,€or€ignorant,€or€stupid,€orÐ ä#€  Ðunreasonable,€or€neurotically€trouble„making,€or€ivory„tower€intellectuals,€and€so€on.€€But€ofÐ ¼%X" Ðcourse€such€tactics€are,€seen€dispassionately,€only€justification€by€force.Ð ”'0!$ Ðà  àThe€logic€above€is€clear,€but€I€want€to€refer€briefly€to€the€emotions€attached€to€it.€€Even€ifÐ l)#& Ðwe€recognize€and€agree€with€the€above€logic,€it€is€extraordinarily€difficult€to€acknowledge€thatÐ D+à$( Ðoneððs€perspective€is€not€the€gold„plated€truth.€€Certainly€this€is€hard€for€me,€and€in€my€experienceÐ -¸&* Ðitððs€equally€hard€for€others.€€However,€I€think€this€is€a€cultural€artifact€rather€than€an€inherentÐ d Ðhuman€characteristic.׃e×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú29Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€In€the€society€Iððm€familiar€with,€at€least,€making€oneððs€view€prevail€overÐ <Ø Ðall€others€is€tied€to€lots€of€Goods:€€wealth,€promotion,€respect,€safety,€sometimes€even€basicÐ  ° Ðsurvival.€€And€in€such€circumstances,€the€acknowledgment€of€oneððs€fallibility€becomes€simply€aÐ ì ˆ Ðsignal€for€others€to€trample€one€underfoot€in€the€struggle€for€dominance.€€As€I€see€it,€U.S.€societyÐ Ä ` Ðis€moving€toward€intensified€struggle,€not€decreased€struggle.€€As€the€society€provides€less€andÐ œ8  Ðless€of€a€safety€net,׃˜h×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú30Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€the€greater€the€stakes€riding€on€domination€and€the€more€Hobbesian€theÐ t  Ðstruggles€become.€€In€such€circumstances€we€have€to€ask€who€this€way€of€relating€really€benefitsð!ðÐ Lè  Ðbut€I€will€not€pursue€this€question€until€much€later€in€this€work.Ð $À ÐÝ‚#¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚#¿ÁÝÚƒ.ÚXÚ  ÚÛ€. Û€Ý  ÝConflict€between€Goods݃#¿ÁUÁÝóóÔ ò :ÁԌРÔp ÐŒó óÝ  ÝThere€is€nothing€about€the€Good€that€says€I€canððt€want€many€different€things€at€once.€€As€I€writeÐ ¬H Ðthis,€for€example,€I€want€to€continue€writing,€I€want€a€drink€of€water,€I€want€the€sirens€outside€toÐ „  Ðstop,€I€want€to€see€òòThe€House€of€Mirthóó,€and€so€on.€€I€want€these€all€now.€€It€does€not€matter€that,Ð \ø Ðfor€example,€I€canððt€figure€out€a€way€to€reconcile€them,€e.g.,€I€canððt€write€this€and€see€òòThe€HouseÐ 4 Ð Ðof€Mirthóó€at€the€same€time.€€The€fact€remains€that€I€still€want€both.€€These€multiple€Goods€need€notÐ d Ðbe€rationally€ordered€or,€indeed,€have€logical€structure.€€For€the€most€part,€we€will€just€let€thisÐ <Ø Ðmultiplicity€lie,€assuming€that€we€ð ðwant€it€allððð!ð€that€we€simply€want€what€we€want€when€we€wantÐ  ° Ðit.׃×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú31Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Even€unreconciled€to€each€other,€these€Goods€remain€things€I€want.Ð ì ˆ Ðà  àNotice€that€I€term€the€Goods€ð ðunreconciledðð,€not€ð ðoppositeðð€to€each€other.€€I€contend€thatÐ Ä ` Ðit€is€impossible€to€hold€truly€opposing€Goods;€€one€cannot€truly€want€both€X€and€not„X.׃Mð×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú32Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ׀Рœ8  ÐConsider€the€ð ðmonkey€trapðð€story.׃3 ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú33Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€To€trap€a€monkey,€drill€a€hole€in€a€coconut€just€big€enoughÐ t  Ðfor€a€monkey€to€get€its€hand€into,€then€place€some,€say,€walnuts€in€it.€€Fasten€the€coconut€securelyÐ Lè  Ðto€something€heavy.€€A€monkey€finds€the€nuts€inside€the€coconut€and€grabs€one,€but€cannot€thenÐ $À Ðpull€its€hand€back€out€of€the€hole.€€You€can€capture€the€monkey€as€it€frantically€tries€to€get€its€armÐ ü˜ Ðout€of€the€coconut€while€still€holding€the€nuts.€€Isnððt€this€a€case€where€two€Goodsð!ð€getting€theÐ Ôp Ðnuts€and€escaping€the€humansð!ð€are€opposite?€€After€all,€the€monkey€canððt€keep€hold€of€the€nutsÐ ¬H Ðwithout€being€captured,€and€it€canððt€avoid€capture€without€letting€go€of€the€nuts.Ð „  Ðà  àI€claim€that€it€makes€more€sense€to€regard€the€two€Goods€as€unreconciled€than€asÐ \ø Ðopposite.€€Letððs€take€the€two€assertions€that€most€directly€describe€the€situation:Ð d ÐÓÓà0  à1.€ð ðThe€monkey€sees€walnuts€as€Goodðð;€€andÐ<Ø(#(# Ðà  à2.€ð ðThe€monkey€sees€freedom€as€Goodðð.Ð * Æ ÐÌÓÜËÓIf€the€two€Goods€are€logically,€inherently,€absolutely€opposite,€then€we€could€also€say,Ð  ¢ Ðequivalently,Ð Þ z ÐÓÓà  à~1.€ð ðThe€monkey€sees€freedom€as€badðð;€€andÐ ¶R  Ðà  à~2.€ð ðThe€monkey€sees€walnuts€as€badðð.Ð ¤@  ÐÌÓ;ÍÓHowever,€~1€and€~2€arenððt€as€plausible€as€1€and€2.€€Something€has€been€lost.€€Comparing€theseÐ €  Ðtwo€sets€of€statements,€we€see€that€the€problems€with€the€second€set€arise€in€their€false€generality.€Ð Xô  ÐCertainly€the€monkey€doesnððt€see€walnuts€as€unwelcome€in€general€but€only€in€this€situation,€andÐ 0Ì Ðthe€same€for€freedom.€€Surely€it€characterizes€the€situation€better€to€say€only€that€the€monkeyÐ ¤ Ðcanððt€find€a€way€to€achieve€both€Goods€òòin€the€current€circumstancesóó.€€After€all,€ways€do€exist€(orÐ à| Ðcan€be€imagined)€that€achieve€both€Goods.€€The€monkey€could€go€to€a€gym,€build€up€its€shoulderÐ ¸T Ðand€arm€muscles,€and€then€smash€the€coconut€apart€with€a€big€rock€and€escape€with€the€nuts.€€OrÐ , Ðthe€monkey€could€go€to€the€store,€buy€some€glue,€put€some€on€the€end€of€its€finger,€and€haul€outÐ h Ðthe€nuts€that€wayð!ð€or€use€a€glue„laden€stick€to€do€this,€much€as€chimpanzees€fish€for€termites.€Ð @ Ü ÐMaybe€it€could€buy€a€saw€at€the€store€and€saw€the€coconut€apart.€€Granted,€these€alternatives€areÐ "´ Ðnot€employed€by€the€average€monkey.€€But€my€point€is€that€the€Goods€are€not€logically,Ð ð#Œ  Ðinherently,€absolutely€opposite€but€only€unreconciled.€€Their€apparent€opposition€comes€from€theÐ È%d" Ðcircumstances,€not€from€the€Goods€themselves.€€It€may€be€that€there€really€isnððt€any€way€monkeysÐ  '