ÿWPC˜g  [s¬*“ —ÅfŽŠ<£•ÖGèçóvÐnL¤3Þ,N þ“Þ€Œ•ç@ç–¿A™KbiéýÍÏ"ÈÇYÆæAˆtØî¡ÁÁJmâ27R×$Ô=ÄD2ê½ñ w—'5Lµ“öÑV²qPqÂ>¶c326Fí½]%Ø;„EröŸ~sÇK¸‡ðum|*\ì#¬«žTë{ Q#‹;ßĨOvD6nàæ”p¡…Pì3¸ ”ñªˆÒ¨¯GÜ;ÀIüöSÿ•_¸ …ïqÜAžOpžc6/m³”v>.4!¿ÍÕèNÓ]I÷þWA¨× þ9ð—Q¾3&Y„Ò’µd»,ì:pÅѨOåQâ·±ñ}«k;Ø9ãY÷F#s±hÙÕÙæ¥&›Eè=™³¶|³Q-@õFR›;IQ 0:n^ ¨ 0~´ B2 72Ow4… 0D™ÝìœîÊ 72M 72 72±Nããååü 720 72bN”N–N˜ 72š mÌ#ÉãUN¬ %úNNN 0Ï 72ÕN 0N NW 1 uYNÎ 0cÐ 1s3 0—¦ 0»=!Æø!ƾ"Æ„#ÆJ$Æ%!ÆÖ% 72œ& 72Î& 72' 0w2' 0Š©' 0 3( 0´Ó( 0LJ) 0ÛN* 0ï)+ 0D, 1 _\- 72»- 1Õí- 72Â.Nô.Nö.Nø.Nú..Ñü. 72Í/ 72ÿ/ 7210 72c0N•0N—0N™0N›0N0NŸ0N¡0N£0N¥0N§0N©0N«0 72­0(ß0 721 7291 72k1œ1 7295 72k5k5k5k5k5k5k5k5k5k55­5­5­5­5­5­5ϰ7:•:©:"»<Ý< ó<=ê+=(A£=A^àF>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>I>IEXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXIXI¯ZIZIZIZIZIZIZIZIZIZIZIZI K K K K—'L¥¾M¾M¾M¾M¾M¾M@cNÞ£P£P£PkRìWp[[ÿq]$p_‡”a”aêcÇdÌÌd(üœ$¡¡ÔUSUS.,Ô8yN. (.(3¬($¤¤Ý ƒüœ!ÝÔUSUS.,ÔÝ  Ýà  àòòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó d(i)w°n-3570¸U§(#Ã$òòÚ  Ú0Ú  Úóó3|x ’Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔDuring€1970„1974,€the€period€of€my€closest€contact€with€Kohlbergððs€efforts€to€constructÐ ° Ðhis€scoring€system,€Kohlberg€kept€redefining€the€stage€definitions€so€that€€in€many€cases,Ð œì Ðreasoning€that€was€previously€regarded€as€StageX€became€regarded€as€StageX-1. ¹Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔAccording€to€many€of€Kohlbergððs€critics,€ð ðlegendaryðð€=€ð ðnonexistentðð.?> (i)?>  Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú9Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThere€are€some€legitimate€questions€here€about€whether€he€really€comprehends€what€he€isÐ ° Ðclaiming,€of€course,€but€these€do€not€alter€the€basic€point.˜NATURA~1NaturalMethod(i)?> ?> ?Æ8ÿÿÿþýü˜HP DeskJet 830C Series Printer0(,,,,0(0(ÖÃ9 Z‹6Times New Roman RegularX( …^Òà$ÈÈÌÔ  Ôà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà ` àòòÔ  ÔÚƒ3Ú3Ú  Ú:Û€3ÛÔ à0xÔóó(i)(ÍO$——ÔÿÔòòóóÔÿÔ3#37=CIQYag­­1.a.i.(1)(a)(i)1)a)(;3£$´´Ô2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0  à3•Ñ37=CIOW_e®®I.A.1.a.(1)(a)i)a)(7V¿$ÆÆÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÚƒ3ÚIIÚ  ÚÛ€3Û€óóÔ ò Ôó ó( q^Hê$ÇÇÌÔ  Ôà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ3ÚEÚ  Ú.Û€3ÛÔ à0dÔó óLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5‚Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5ƒLevel 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5„Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5…Level 1Level 2Level 3Level 4Level 5WOREssay #Header3Header4Header5Header6(i)?> +1)(Oé;$µµà0  àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0` (#(#à(b·¤$¶¶à0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚÚ  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#à(xir$··à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0¸ (#¸ (#à(ŒÜ$¸¸à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0h(#(#à(ŸF$¹¹à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àÔ2#Ô(Ú  ÚÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0Àh(#h(#à(³Àô$ººà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú0Ú  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0À(#À(#à(ǵ{$»»à0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àÔ2#ÔÚ  ÚaÚ  Ú)Ô3  Ôà0p(#(#à(F$ïïà0  àà0` (#(#àà0¸ ` (#` (#àà0¸ (#¸ (#àà0h(#(#àà0Àh(#h(#àà0À(#À(#àà0p(#(#àÔ2#ÔÙ ÙÚ  ÚÚ  ÚÙ Ù)Ô3  Ôà0Èp(#p(#àÙ Ù*789:;<=sŸ–37;?CGKOS°°-*+xGi)0vÝC¡¥©­±¹ÁÇHeadOfSecFor the outline I give beneath the title of IA1(a)(i)1)a)A0ý!?¡¥©­µ½ÃHeadOfFor the outline I give beneath the title of IA1(a)(i)1)a)(i)?> (i)?> (i)RelationalPrinciple?> (i)?>  ’Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú19Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔWhy€a€decrease€of€ð ðmore€than€oneðð€instead€of€just€ð ðany€decreaseðð?€€Because€we€valueÐ ° ÐBobððs€life€too.€€His€bad€actions€donððt€change€that.€€Many€people€believe€otherwise,€of€course,€butÐ œì Ðit€seems€to€me€that€whatever€the€sophistication€of€their€arguments,€they€boil€down€to€seeingÐ ˆØ Ðrevenge€as€a€òòmoralóó€factor,€that€is,€as€relevant€to€the€decision€of€how€we€are€to€treat€others,Ð tÄ Ðinstead€of€as€only€relevant€to€our€own€grieving.€€[See€the€thesis,€Ô4‚iÝ  ÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôð ðRevenge€Is€Not€a€MoralÐ `° ÐEmotion,€i.e.,€Has€No€Weight€in€Moral€DecisionmakingððÔ6„ÔÝ‚&ÍO˜ƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý PÆÔ.](i)?> Revenge ùÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ôð ðConfounding€factorsðð€means€factors€not€controlled€for€that€may€imply€a€differentÐ ° Ðconclusion.€€For€example,€both€the€adoption€of€capital€punishment€laws€and€the€number€of€crimesÐ œì Ðmight€be€associated€with€the€economy€of€the€state,€so€that€any€positive€association€between€theÐ ˆØ Ðtwo€comes€from€their€mutual€response€to€this€underlying€factor. ÅÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔIn€our€discussion€of€xx.€€For€the€general€argument,€see€the€Theses,Ô4‚qÝ àÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ô€ð ðThe€Means€AreÐ ° ÐEnds€in€EmbryoððÔ6©ÔÝ‚&ÍO½ƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý DëÔ€and€Ô4‚rÝ È ÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôð ðNo€Matter€What€Goals€We€Pursue€or€Goods€We€Seek,€All€We€ReallyÐ œì ÐKnow€Is€How€Weððve€Treated€Each€Other€in€Pursuing€ThemððÔ6ŒÔÝ‚&ÍO ƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý ÔÎÔ.Means-EndsAllWeKnow Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú22Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ôxx€I€need€to€talk€also€about€the€emotion€of€frustration€as€a€source€of€these€intuitionsð!ð€aÐ ° Ðneed€to€do€òòsomethingóó.€€Kill€the€guy€who€caused€the€problem!€€This€is€a€form€of€Ô4‚tÝ XÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôthe€ParochialÐ œì ÐFallacyÔ6.ÔÝ‚&ÍOBƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý àpÔ,€of€course.ParochialFallacyMeans-EndsFlowUndergroundMoralBurden àÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔIs€my€phrasing€here€(ð ðYvonne€kills€Bobðð)€merely€an€inflammatory€rhetorical€device?€Ð ° ÐAfter€all,€Yvonne€doesnððt€make€Bob€kill€someone,€doesnððt€sit€on€Bobððs€jury,€doesnððt€sentence€himÐ œì Ðto€death,€and€doesnððt€carry€out€the€execution;€€her€only€involvement€is€support€for€a€law€and€legalÐ ˆØ Ðsystem€under€which€Bob€is€executed.€€But€this€is€a€distinction€without€a€difference.€€Yvonne€isÐ tÄ Ðwilling€something€to€occur.€€If€she€supports€the€law€and€legal€system,€then€she€is€supporting€itsÐ `° Ðforeseeable€results.€€This€is,€of€course,€just€a€specific€application€of€Ô4‚yÝ ÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôthe€Relational€Principle€ofÐ L œ ÐJusticeÔ6ÔÝ‚&ÍOƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý ÈEÔ.RelationalPrinciple ™Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú24Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔI€do€not€emphasize€the€additional€uncertainty€arising€from€the€possibility€that€innocentÐ ° Ðpeople€will€be€executed.€€The€consideration€is€germane,€but€the€òòcentralóó€argumentð!ð€the€oneÐ œì Ðpresented€hereð!ð€is€diverted€into€a€morass€of€claims€and€counter„claims€about€the€proceduralÐ ˆØ Ðprotections€that€exist€or€that€can€be€set€up.€€The€fact€that€such€absolute€protections€are€always€inÐ tÄ Ðthe€future,€always€motivated€by€að!ð€whoops!ð!ð€wrongful€execution€(or€near„execution)€doesnððtÐ `° Ðseem€to€dent€death€penalty€supportersðð€happy€faith€that€òòthisóó€time€the€system€is€perfect.€€[xx€FindÐ L œ Ðthe€LeCarr€quote.]Ð 8 ˆ  Ðà  àIf€we€justify€capital€punishment€on€the€basis€of€saving€lives,€then€wrongful€execution€is€notÐ d Ðnecessarily€a€problem.€€If€capital€punishment€has€a€deterrent€effect,€then€it€has€that€effect€even€ifÐ Pì Ðthe€executed€are€innocent,€as€long€as€we€can€pretend€theyððre€guilty€or€even€if€sufficient€lives€areÐ <Ø Ðsaved€even€allowing€for€the€execution€of€some€innocents.€€And€then€what€does€òòthatóó€create€as€ourÐ ( Ä Ðrelationship?€€That€Iððm€willing€to€kill€you€just€as€a€demonstration€effect? TÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú25Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThis€is€the€moral€picture,€but€its€practical€significance€will€be€diluted€to€the€extent€thatÐ ° Ðthe€supporters€of€capital€punishment€are€separated€from€its€victims.€€Support€for€capitalÐ œì Ðpunishment€is€(xx€I€believe)€strongly€divided€along€class€and€race€lines,€as€is€(in€reverse)€theÐ ˆØ Ðlikelihood€of€being€executed.€€Those€with€power€in€the€society€are€those€who€most€support€capitalÐ tÄ Ðpunishment€and€least€suffer€from€it.Introduction ¥Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔOmo€was€the€name€of€a€dishwashing€soap€at€one€time.€€(ð ðÔ_ÔOmoÔ_Ôð!ð€itððs€fantastic!ðð)€€NoÐ ° Ðrelation.€€Actually,€I€use€this€phrase€in€honor€of€Miss€Ella€Leppert,€my€high€school€civics/Ð œì Ðeconomics/€history€teacher,€who€used€a€similar€expression. Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThe€dynamics€of€institutional€development€differ€from€those€of€individual€development.€Ð ° ÐThe€connection€between€the€two€is€laid€out€in€Chilton(1988,1991). Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú5Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔObviously€some€parents/€authorities€are€domineering€and€abusive,€caring€little€for€theirÐ ° Ðchildrenððs€interests,€but€we€are€speaking€here€only€of€good€parents.€€Bad€parenting€wouldÐ œì Ðultimately€lead€the€child€on€to€Stage2ð!ð€but€thatððs€another€story. ›Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú6Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔSee€the€discussion€in€Chilton€(1988:Chapters3€and€4). 6Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú7Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_Ô€This€is€Hegelððs€charge€against€Kant:€€that€the€Categorical€Imperative€is€empty€formalism,Ð ° Ðproviding€no€concrete€guidance€about€what€norms€can€be€accepted.€€Although€it€constrains€theÐ œì Ðform€of€norms€that€can€be€considered,€many€possible€norms€satisfy€that€constraint,€and€theÐ ˆØ ÐCategorical€Imperative€provides€us€no€further€help€in€distinguishing€which€of€these€norms€weÐ tÄ Ðshould€choose. ÔÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú8Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔNote€that€this€assumes€that€I€am€indeed€free€to€talk€to€themð!ð€no€one€is€being€kept€lockedÐ ° Ðaway€from€the€worldð!ð,€that€they€are€both€free€to€decide€what€is€moralð!ð€no€one€is€beingÐ œì Ðthreatened€into€pseudo„agreementð!ð,€and€that€both€are€committed€to€discussion€of€the€relationshipÐ ˆØ Ðuntil€both€agree. aÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú10Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔWhat€if€the€psychological€pain€Dr.Jefferson€would€experience€after€killing€Ms.Smith€beÐ ° Ðgreater€than€her€pain€in€dying?€€It€seems€to€me€that€if€killing€her€is€morally€justified,€based€on€herÐ œì Ðown€wishes,€then€the€psychological€pain€is€Dr.Jeffersonððs€problem€and€not€relevant€to€his€moralÐ ˆØ Ðobligations€here.€€Ms.Smithððs€pain€is€objective;€€it€doesnððt€arise€from€her€choice.€€Dr.JeffersonððsÐ tÄ Ðpsychological€pain€arises€from€his€own€choice.€€By€denying€her€the€assistance€she€requests,Ð `° ÐDr.Jefferson€is€essentially€dumping€off€his€own€problems€on€her.€€Thereððs€no€guarantee€that€doingÐ L œ Ðthe€right€thing€will€be€painless;€€my€point€here€is€that€we€must€be€clear€who€is€responsible€forÐ 8 ˆ Ðdealing€with€the€pain.Ð $ t Ðà  àIððm€strongly€reminded€here€of€my€experience€in€therapy€groups,€where€I€can€observeÐ  ` Ðpeople€refusing€to€deal€with€their€neurotic€patterns,€dumping€them€off€on€the€people€around€them.€Ð ü L  ÐEven€if€this€dumping„off€could€alleviate€their€pain,€which€I€donððt€believe€it€really€does,€it€stillÐ è 8  Ðprevents€them€from€becoming€authentic. Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú11Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThis€would€be€a€good€place€to€remind€my€readers€of€the€ð ðMnchhausen€trilemmaðð;€€it€isÐ ° Ða€false€trail€to€try€to€compel€agreement€through€logic.€€My€argument€shows€a€different€approachÐ œì Ðto€justification:€€through€inescapability€and€actual€agreement,€not€logic.€€Philosophers€are€so€usedÐ ˆØ Ðto€being€skeptical€of€arguments,€probing€their€logic,€that€they€can€forget€that€they€are€alsoð!ðÐ tÄ Ðmaybe€even€primarily!ð!ð€human€beings€capable€of€agreement€and€disagreement€without€logic.€€WeÐ `° Ðshouldnððt€confuse€ð ðfailing€to€provide€logical€compulsionðð€with€ð ðbeing€wrongðð. fÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú12Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔBy€framing€the€issue€thus,€this€approach€avoids€relativistic€objections€to€moralÐ ° Ðgrounding.€€Iððm€just€asking€whether€the€reader€agrees€with€my€opinion.€€I€have€met€relativists€whoÐ œì Ðconfuse€ð ðhaving€my€opinionðð€with€ð ðbeing€able€to€logically€prove€my€opinionðð,€so€much€so€thatÐ ˆØ Ðthey€deny€they€have€any€opinions.€€But€it€is€their€òòcontraryóó€opinion€that€would€undercut€my€claim,Ð tÄ Ðnot€their€self„doubting€lack€of€opinion. õÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú13Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThis€would€seem€a€rather€blasphemous€position€to€take€(for€Christians€and€Jews,€atÐ ° Ðleast),€given€the€Third€and€Fourth€Commandmentsðð€prohibition€of€worshiping€idols(i.e.,€oneððsÐ œì Ðown€opinion)€or€taking€Godððs€name€in€vain€(i.e.,€claiming€Godððs€authority).€€I€am€indebted€toÐ ˆØ ÐWogaman(19xx€on€free€speech)€for€this€line€of€argument. Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú14Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔI€remain€uncertain€what€role€paternalism€can€play€in€this€argument.€€My€initial€sense€isÐ ° Ðthat€paternalism€is€never€justified.€€If€there€are€people€unable€to€express€their€sense€of€the€GoodÐ œì Ð(e.g.,€babies,€some€developmentally€disabled),€then€that€takes€care€of€itself.€€I€recognize€that€this€isÐ ˆØ Ðnot€the€only€issue,€but€I€cannot€usefully€present€a€comprehensive€discussion€here. }Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú15Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔThis€list€is€as€complete€as€I€can€make€it,€but€its€completeness€is€not€really€the€issue€here.€Ð ° ÐInstead,€my€aim€is€to€show€the€various€ways€such€claims€are€to€be€handled.€€I€recognize€thatÐ œì Ðadditional€considerations€may€change€my€conclusion. àÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú16Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔI€explicitly€intend€ð ðconstructedðð€to€recall€George€Herbert€Meadððs€social€constructionÐ ° Ðtheory. ½Ý ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú17Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔAssuming,€of€course,€that€his€position€passes€all€the€other€tests€described€after€this. ÂÝ ƒ¬($ÝÔUSUS.,Ôà  àòòÚ  Ú18Ú  ÚóóÝ  ÝÔ_ÔI€am€not€a€Christian,€but€I€see€the€crucifixion€story€as€showing€that€Jesus€took€the€sameÐ ° Ðposition.€€What€was€done€to€him€was€unjust,€and€he€knew€it,€but€he€took€no€action€to€prevent€hisÐ œì Ðdeath€but€rather€refused€to€harm€or€even€condemn€those€who€killed€him.€€He€stopped€one€strandÐ ˆØ Ðof€injustice,€and€in€my€view€that€is€the€eternal€life€granted€him€and€others€who€follow€thatÐ tÄ Ðexample:€€the€meaning€of€their€lives€continues€forever€in€the€way€that€the€resulting€òòabsenceóó€ofÐ `° Ðinjustice€plays€out€forever.Ý ƒüœ!ÝÔUSUS.,ÔÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÑ ý ÑÑ8€ç˜XXdìdÈ8ÑFebruary€14,€2003Ð ° Ðà€xxB(#àÔÿÔò òLEVEL:€€9ó óÔÿºÔˆÐ œì Ðò òÔ‡„ÞÚ„XXÔ[Chapter€4]Ô#†Xç˜X„„ÞÚ#Ôó óÐ ˆØ Ðò òÔ‡°!B°XXç˜Ôà0  àà ° àòòStage€3,€Stage€6ó óóóÔ#†Xç˜X°°!Bn#ÔÐè8(#(# Ð[URL:€€Stage€6]Ð ¸  ÐÌSECTIONS€(&€perhaps€subsections):Ð  à ÐÓ€ A(vÝ03(ÓÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;ÜÝà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝDirect€vs.€Mediated€Relationships݃7é;Ü ÝŒÐ| Ì` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;ÙÝà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚIIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝThe€Lifeworld€Horizon݃7é;ÙÝŒÐh ¸` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;ËÝà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚIIIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝStage€1,€Stage€4݃7é;ËøÝŒÐT¤ ` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;¹Ýà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚIVÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝStage€2,€Stage€5݃7é;¹æÝŒÐ@ ` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;¦Ýà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚVÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝStage€3,€Stage€6݃7é;¦ÓÝŒÐ,| ` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;’Ýà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚVIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝCase€Study:€€Dr.€Jeffersonððs€Dilemma݃7é;’¿ÝŒÐh ` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚8·¤"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚8·¤–Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚAÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#àÝ  ÝDr.Jeffersonððs€fear€of€being€punished.݃8·¤–ÃÝŒÐT ¸ (#¸ (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚8·¤"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚8·¤° Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚBÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#àÝ  ÝDr.Jeffersonððs€familyððs€fear€of€the€consequences€for€them€of€hisÐ ð@ Ðpunishment.݃8·¤° Ý ÝŒÐÜ,¸ (#¸ (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚8·¤"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚8·¤ Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚCÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#àÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€mercy€killing€will€lead€to€people€beingÐ È Ðrailroaded€by€their€relatives€into€ð ðchoosingðð€to€die.݃8·¤ 4 ݌д¸ (#¸ (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚8·¤"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚8·¤Ž Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚDÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#àÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€mercy€killing€will€lead€to€a€general€lesseningÐ  ð Ðof€respect€for€life,€so€that€peopleððs€lives€cease€to€be€ends€in€themselves€andÐ ŒÜ Ðinstead€become€means€for€othersðð€ends.݃8·¤Ž » ÝŒÐxȸ (#¸ (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚8·¤"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚8·¤pÝà0  àà0` (#(#àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚEÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0¸ ` (#` (#àÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€deliberate€lawbreaking€will€undercut€the€ruleÐ d´ Ðof€law.݃8·¤pÝŒÐP ¸ (#¸ (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;ÉÝà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚVIIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝCase€Study:€€Capital€Punishment݃7é;ÉöÝŒÐ<Œ` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÝ"‚7é;"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚7é;ÆÝà0  àÔ2vÝÔÚ  ÚVIIIÚ  ÚÔ3  Ôà0` (#(#àÝ  ÝCase€Study:€€The€U.S.€Prison€System݃7é;ÆóÝŒÐ(x` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝÌßA€•) °°xdE°ÿxAßÐ P ÐÓÓÌStage6€is€the€final,€legendary׃ ×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú1Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€stage€of€Lawrence€Kohlbergððs€stage€sequence€of€moral€reasoning.€Ð ç7 ÐKohlberg€was€never€able€to€find€enough€Stage6€reasoners€for€its€scoring€or€even€any€settled€senseÐ ¿! Ðof€its€existence,׃ |×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú2Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€but€he€continued€to€include€it€in€his€scheme€ð ðfor€theoretical€completenessððÐ —#ç! Ð(Kohlberg,€personal€communication).€€Ann€Colby€(personal€communication)€opined€that€it€couldÐ o%¿ # Ðnot€be€given€a€structural€specification.€€James€Restððs€(19xx)€Defining€Issues€Test€makes€noÐ G'—"%ýc Ðprovision€for€a€Stage6,€considering€it,€if€at€all,€part€of€his€general€ð ðpostconventional€moralityððÐ d Ðcategory.€€Neither€Piagetððs€(19xx)€nor€Selmanððs€(19xx)€work€include€an€equivalent€stage.€€EvenÐ <Ø ÐKohlbergððs€testing€and€scoring€method€(Colby€&€Kohlberg€1987)€does€not€assign€Stage6€scores.Ð  ° Ðà  àDespite€this€€general€pessimism,€I€believe€Stage6€reasoning€can€be€defined,€and€I€attemptÐ ì ˆ Ðto€do€so€below.€€To€do€this,€I€need€to€discuss€the€entire€stage€sequence.€€My€earlier€exposition€ofÐ Ä ` Ðthe€stage€sequence€(Chilton€1988:Chapter€3)€is€here€modified€in€two€ways.€€First,€my€earlierÐ œ8  Ðexposition€put€undue€weight€on€the€moral€problems€òòunóóresolved€by€each€stage.€€My€primaryÐ t  Ðmotivation€there€was€to€explain€the€forces€driving€cognitive€developmentð!ð€after€all,€òòDPDóóððs€goalÐ Lè  Ðwas€to€define€developmentð!ð,€so€my€primary€interest€in€each€stage€was€how€it€failed€and€thusÐ $À Ðrequired€the€subsequent€stage.€€My€perspective€there€was€not€wrong,€exactly,€but€€I€failed€toÐ ü˜ Ðappreciate€fully€that€each€stage€could€also€be€unproblematic.€€Despite€my€conscious€recognitionÐ Ôp Ðthat€the€stages€do€not€form€a€sequence€of€moral€worth,€I€was€still€subconsciously€driven€by€theÐ ¬H Ðmentality€that€everyone€really€should€aspire€to€high„stage€reasoning€and€Western€civilization.€€TheÐ „  Ðdescription€here€is€more€balanced€between€assertion€and€critiqueð!ð€as€is€appropriate€for€a€stageÐ \ø Ðmarked€by€dialectical€logic.Ð 4 Ð Ðà  àSecond,€I€now€understand€more€clearly€the€nature€of€the€vertical€decalage€betweenÐ  "¨ ÐÔ_ÔStagesX€and€X+3.€€Rather€than€taking€the€six€stages€in€sequence,€I€will€be€handling€them€in€theirÐ ä#€  ÐÔ_Ôvertically€connected€pairs.€€This€will€help€clarify€the€description€of€Stage6€through€its€connectionÐ ¼%X" Ðwith€the€conceptually€simpler€Stage3.€€It€will€also€clarify€the€limits€within€which€the€lower€stagesÐ ”'0!$ Ðcan€be€used€as€models€for€the€higher€stages.Ð l)#& Ðâ âÝ‚,¿ÿÝÐ D+à$( ÐÔ  Ôâ âò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÔ_ÔÝ‚,¿!ÝÚƒ3ÚIÚ  ÚÛ€3Û€Ý  ÝDirect€vs.€Mediated€Relationships݃,¿!‰ÝóóÔ ò ^ԌРd ÐŒó óÝ  ÝÓÓà0  àà0` (#(#àIf€I€had€to€choose€the€place€of€my€birth,€I€should€have€preferred€a€communityÐ <Ø Ðproportioned€in€its€extent€to€the€limits€of€the€human€faculties;€€that€is€to€theÐ ( Ä Ðpossibility€of€being€well€governed:€€...a€State€in€which€its€individuals€might€be€soÐ  ° Ðwell€known€to€each€other,€that€neither€the€secret€machinations€of€vice,€nor€theÐ  œ Ðmodesty€of€virtue€should€be€able€to€escape€the€notice€and€judgment€of€the€public;€Ð ì ˆ Ðand€in€which€the€agreeable€custom€of€seeing€and€knowing€each€other,€shouldÐ Ø t Ðoccasion€the€love€of€their€country€to€be€rather€an€affection€for€its€inhabitants€thanÐ Ä ` Ðfor€its€soil....ððаL ` (#` (# Ðà0  àà0` (#(#àà ¸ àð"ð€Jean„Jacques€Rousseau€(1755/1967:154)М8 ` (#` (# ÐÌÓPÓThe€connection€between€StageX€and€StageX+3€is€the€difference€between€moral€reasoning€aboutÐ t  Ðð ðdirectðð€relationships€vs.€ð ðmediatedðð€relationships.€€This€section€elaborates€on€that€distinction.Ð Lè  Ðà  àIn€Stages€1,€2,€and€3€we€relate€to€each€other€directly,€face„to„face,€individually.€€This€isÐ $À Ðpossible€for€a€dyad€or€even€for€collectivities€up€to€a€small€village.€€It€is€technically€true€that€anyÐ ü˜ Ðgroup€of€three€or€more€people€has€the€potential€for€conflicting€dyadic€relationships,€and€thusÐ Ôp Ðwould€have€to€resolve€their€moral€conflicts€at€Stages4,€5,€or€6,€but€these€conflicts€can€be€workedÐ ¬H Ðout€on€a€face„to„face€basis€as€long€as€everyone€in€the€collectivity€can€know€everyone€else€by€nameÐ „  Ðand€can€work€things€out€on€a€face„to„face€basis,€perhaps€even€in€a€community€meeting.€€TheÐ \ø Ðeconomy€is€not€so€differentiated€or€complex€that€they€canððt€understand€each€otherððs€jobs€and€theÐ 4 Ð Ðassociated€requirements€and€complex€coordinations.Ð  "¨ Ðà  àHowever,€even€though€Stages1,€2,€and€3€can€handle€moderately€large€groups,€at€someÐ ä#€  Ðpoint€the€group€gets€large€enough€and/or€the€economy€gets€differentiated€enough€that€face„to„faceÐ ¼%X" Ðmeetings€become€impractical.€€At€this€point€people€relate€to€one€another€through€the€medium€ofÐ ”'0!$ Ðan€overarching€moral€order€of€some€sort:€€a€system€of€laws,€or€of€religious€injunctions,€or€of€aÐ l)#& Ðâ âmonarchððs€wishes,€or€tradition,€or€whatever.€€The€point€is€that€this€overarching€moral€orderÐ D+à$( Ð[which€I€will€call€the€o.m.o.€for€short,€or,€even€better,€ð ðomoðð]׃+×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú3Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€stands€in€for€you€in€my€relationshipÐ d Ðâ âwith€you.€€We€may€not€be€able€to€relate€to€each€other€directly,€but€the€omo€can€express€our€desireÐ <Ø Ðfor€what€we€wish€the€relationship€to€be.€€Granted,€the€connection€is€only€clumsily€mediatedÐ  ° Ðthrough€this€omo,€like€trying€to€cook€with€boxing€gloves€on,€but€this€is€necessaryð!ð€the€only€wayÐ ì ˆ ÐÔ_Ôwe€can€care€for€each€other€absent€a€direct€relationship.€€I€will€call€this€sort€of€relationship€aÐ Ä ` Ðð ðmediated€relationshipðð.Ð œ8  Ðà  àNote€that€mediated€relationships€do€not€replace€direct€relationships.€€MediatedÐ t  Ðrelationships€are€necessary€when€people€are€not€immediately€available€to€us€but€are€still€affectedÐ Lè  Ðby€our€actions.€€If€there€are€no€such€other€people€affected,€then€a€direct€relationship€is€fine.€€But€ifÐ $À Ðthere€are,€then€moral€problems€occur,€because€people€donððt€see€the€other€people€affected€andÐ ü˜ Ðoperate€solely€on€the€basis€of€direct€relationships.€€In€a€direct€relationship,€hiring€oneððs€spouse€isÐ Ôp Ðjust€a€loving€expression€of€your€relationship€with€h/her;€€but€when€one€recognizes€that€otherÐ ¬H Ðpeople€are€affected€by€your€choice,€then€in€mediated€relationship€terms,€hiring€your€spouseÐ „  Ðbecomes€nepotism.Ð \ø Ðà  àFor€each€of€Stages1,€2,€and€3,€which€govern€direct€relationships,€there€is€a€moral€stage€(4,Ð 4 Ð Ð5,€and€6,€respectively)€that€represents€the€same€relationship€but€for€mediated€relationships.€€ThisÐ  "¨ Ðconnection€between€different€cognitive€levels€Piaget€referred€to€as€a€ð ðvertical€decalageðð,€where€aÐ ä#€  Ðsequence€of€stages€are€paralleled€by€a€similar€sequence€of€stages€at€a€more€abstract€level.òòóó€€In€theÐ ¼%X" Ðfollowing,€therefore,€the€moral€reasoning€stages€appear€in€pairs,€first€the€(lower)€stage€in€terms€ofÐ ”'0!$ Ðthe€direct€relationship€it€sets€up,€and€then€the€X+3€moral€stage,€where€the€nature€of€the€directÐ l)#& Ðrelationship€is€paralleled€by€the€nature€of€the€mediated€relationship.Ð d Ðà  àThere€is€an€important€emotional€difference€between€StageX€and€StageX+3€reasoning.€Ð <Ø ÐHere€I€will€use€an€image€I€used€previously€in€the€bookððs€Ô4‚|St(ÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  ÔIntroductionÔ64ÔÝ‚&ÍO)4es€1ÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7StW4Ô€in€another€context.Ð  ° ÐÓÓà0  àð ðBy€analogy,€even€though€it€is€formally€possible€to€see€the€Earth€as€fixed€and€all€else€asÐ ì ˆ Ðrevolving€around€it,€the€most€straightforward€accountð!ð€given€the€totality€of€ourÐ Ú v Ðobservations,€of€course,€not€simply€our€immediate,€unreflective€perceptionsð!ð€is€that€theÐ È d ÐEarth€moves€amidst€other€moving€entities.€€It€is€in€that€same€sense€that€I€believe€the€waysÐ ¶R  Ðof€relating€perspective€is€the€superior€account.€€Our€immediate€perceptions€may€be€of€ourÐ ¤@  Ðown€needs€and€desires,€but€I€believe€that€a€more€careful€look€at€the€whole€situation€willÐ ’.  Ðshow€that€the€ways€of€relating€perspective€provides€a€more€straightforward€andÐ €  Ðcomprehensive€account.ððÐn (#(# ÐÌÓï4ÓThe€morality€of€StageX€is€reinforced€by€the€force€of€immediate€empathy.€€The€morality€ofÐ Jæ  ÐStageX+3€may€be€just€as€strong€logically,€but€it€does€not€have€the€same€support€of€empatheticÐ "¾ Ðemotion,€since€by€its€very€nature€it€involves€people€and€processes€we€cannot€see€directly€andÐ ú– Ðwholly.Ð Òn ÐÝ‚,¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚,¿Ç9ÝÚƒ3ÚIIÚ  ÚÛ€3Û€Ý  ÝThe€Lifeworld€Horizon݃,¿Ç9:ÝóóÔ ò æ9ԌР‚ ÐŒó óÝ  ÝI€originally€(mis)understood€the€moral€reasoning€stages€in€negative€terms,€concentrating€on€theÐ Zö Ðinadequacies€and€injustices€of€each€stage,€the€ones€that€caused€further€moral€development€toÐ 2!Î Ðoccur.€€This€perspective€was€useful€in€a€limited€way,€since€my€interest€was€in€how/€why€countriesÐ  #¦ Ðdeveloped€along€the€same€path.׃7×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú4Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð â$~! Ðà  àI€do€not€see€this€perspective€as€wrong,€but€neither€do€I€see€it€as€complete.€€It€neglects€theÐ º&V # Ðother€perspective€I€am€discussing€here:€€that€each€stage€is€also€the€òòcompletionóó€of€a€developmentalÐ ’(."% Ðresolution€of€conflict.€€This€move€highlights€and€transforms€some€of€the€background€assumptionsÐ j*$' Ðconstituting€our€lifeworld,€but€one€can€still€see€the€new€stage€as€residing€happily€within€theÐ d Ðhorizon€of€an€unproblematic€lifeworld.€€Perhaps€new€conflicts€will€come€to€light,€but€at€least€forÐ <Ø Ðthe€moment€we€can€celebrate€the€construction€of€a€new,€adequate,€moral€perspective.€€So€in€whatÐ  ° Ðfollows€I€will€be€looking€more€at€what€the€stages€accomplish€than€at€their€inadequacies.Ð ì ˆ ÐÝ‚,¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚,¿Ù?ÝÚƒ3ÚIIIÚ  ÚÛ€3Û€Ý  ÝStage€1,€Stage€4݃,¿Ù?@ÝóóÔ ò ø?ԌРœ8  ÐŒó óÝ  ÝI€used€to€conceive€of€Stage1€as€the€ð ðmight€makes€rightðð€stage,€and€I€suppose€that€could€still€beÐ t  Ðtrue.€€But€Iððve€come€to€think€of€the€moral€relationship€as€seen€by€Stage1€in€the€context€of€theÐ Lè  Ðrelationship€between€a€child€(say,€ð ðCallyðð,€which€coincidentally€is€the€name€of€my€granddaughter)Ð $À Ðand€her€mother€(say,€ð ðCathyðð,€which€by€another€coincidence€is€the€name€of€my€daughter).€€CathyÐ ü˜ Ðtells€Cally€what€to€do,€but€not€to€dominate€her.€€Cathy€practices€ð ðÔ4‚Ý ðÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôattachment€parentingÔ6úBÔÝ‚&ÍOCrateÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7latŸÝŒÐ4 Ð` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  Ýà  àÝ"‚*3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚*3£ ÝÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú2Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0 ` àÝ  ÝDr.Jeffersonððs€familyððs€fear€of€the€consequences€for€them€of€his€punishment.݃*3£ = ÝŒÐ "¨` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  Ýà  àÝ"‚*3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚*3£8¡ÝÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú3Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0 ` àÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€mercy€killing€will€lead€to€people€being€railroaded€byÐ ä#€  Ðtheir€relatives€into€ð ðchoosingðð€to€die.݃*3£8¡e¡ÝŒÐd` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  Ýà  àÝ"‚*3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚*3£¤¢ÝÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú4Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0 ` àÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€mercy€killing€will€lead€to€a€general€lessening€ofÐ <Ø Ðrespect€for€life,€so€that€peopleððs€lives€cease€to€be€ends€in€themselves€and€insteadÐ  ° Ðbecome€means€for€othersðð€ends.݃*3£¤¢Ñ¢ÝŒÐì ˆ` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  Ýà  àÝ"‚*3£"ÝÝ  ÝÝ‚*3£k¤ÝÔ2#ÔÚ  Ú5Ú  Ú.Ô3  Ôà0 ` àÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€deliberate€lawbreaking€will€undercut€the€rule€of€law.݃*3£k¤˜¤ÝŒÐÄ `` (#` (# ÐŒÝ  ÝWe€consider€these€claims€one€by€one.Ð œ8  ÐÝ‚-HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚-HêÂ¥Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ3ÚAÚ  Ú.Û€3ÛÝ  ÝDr.Jeffersonððs€fear€of€punishment݃-HêÂ¥é¥ÝÔ à0+¦ÔŒÐLè ` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  ÝBy€performing€the€mercy€killing,€Dr.€Jefferson€puts€himself€at€risk€of€punishmentð!ð€his€medicalÐ $À Ðlicense€suspended€or€revoked;€€fines;€€jail.€€Dr.Jefferson€could€claim€(and€might€be€correct)€thatÐ ü˜ Ðhis€long„term€suffering€from€these€punishments€is€greater€than€Ms.Smithððs€intense€but€briefÐ Ôp Ðsuffering.€€However,€there€is€a€crucial€difference€between€the€two€considerations.€€Ms.SmithððsÐ ¬H Ðsuffering€is€òòobjectiveóó,€in€that€it€is€not€caused€by€society€and€canððt€be€alleviated€by€it.€Ð „  ÐDr.Jeffersonððs€suffering€is€òòconstructedóó,€a€human€creation,€in€that€weð!ð€societyð!ð€will€have€chosenÐ \ø Ðto€punish€him.׃N×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú16Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€In€these€circumstances,€Dr.Jeffersonððs€course€is€to€carry€out€the€mercy€killingÐ 4 Ð Ðand€then€face€society€with€the€claim€that€this€is€the€only€moral€course€he€could€take.׃Oh×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú17Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€True,Ð  "¨ Ðsociety€may€still€choose€to€punish€him,€but€that€is€societyððs€choice,€not€his.€€We€may€be€unable€toÐ ä#€  Ðprevent€unjust€treatment,€but€we€can€still€act€morally€ourselves.€€Societyððs€attitude€towardÐ ¼%X" ÐDr.Jefferson€can€be€changed€as€we€come€to€understand€what€is€moral;€€the€horrible€butÐ ”'0!$ Ðimpersonal€ravages€of€cancer€on€Ms.Smith€cannot€be€changed;€€they€are€the€only€real€ð ðfactðð€inÐ d Ðthis€case.Ð <Ø Ðà  àThis€position€may€seem€reckless€of€the€consequences€not€just€to€oneself€(which€one€is,Ð  ° Ðafter€all,€free€to€accept)€but€also€on€others.€€Hereððs€the€way€I€look€at€it.€€Each€of€us€has€surelyÐ ì ˆ Ðbeen€treated€unjustly€in€life.€€The€natural€reaction€to€this€experience€is€to€say,€ð ðIððve€been€treatedÐ Ä ` Ðunjustly€in€life€when€I€had€no€way€to€avoid€it,€so€why€should€I€deliberately€put€myself€in€line€forÐ œ8  Ðmore€such€treatment?€€Why€canððt€somebody€else€take€the€burden€for€once?€€Let€this€cup€pass.ðð€Ð t  ÐÔ_ÔSince€everyone€faces€points€where€shifting€the€moral€burden€in€this€way€is€a€possible€course€ofÐ Lè  Ðaction,€choosing€to€shift€the€burden€means€that€we€all€become€complicit€in€the€injustice.€Ð $À ÐOppressive€systems€are€able€to€exist€because€people€at€each€level€in€the€hierarchy€of€oppressionÐ ü˜ Ðare€trying€desperately€to€stay€in€their€place€or€move€up,€and€are€willing€to€treat€others€unjustly€toÐ Ôp Ðdo€so.€€The€only€real€way€to€end€oppression€is€to€refuse€to€participate€in€it.€€Trying€to€dump€theÐ ¬H Ðinjustice€off€on€others€only€maintains€the€overall€system€of€oppression.׃P×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú18Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€I€donððt€think€one€Ô_ÔcanÐ „  Ðstrategize€oneððs€way€out€of€such€choices€by,€for€example,€trying€to€weigh€harm€against€harm.€Ð \ø ÐWhen€the€ð ðlesser€harmðð€arises€out€of€a€social€construction,€choosing€that€lesser€harm€perpetuatesÐ 4 Ð Ðthat€harmððs€existence€for€others€to€deal€with.Ð  "¨ ÐÌÝ‚-HêÿÝÐ ¼%X" ÐÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚-Hê"´Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ3ÚBÚ  Ú.Û€3ÛÝ  ÝDr.Jeffersonððs€familyððs€fear€of€the€punishmentððs€consequences€for€them݃-Hê"´]´ÝÔ à0Ÿ´ÔŒÐd` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  ÝWith€one€exception,€Dr.Jeffersonððs€familyððs€concerns€are€no€different€from€his.€€Like€him,€theyÐ <Ø Ðrecognize€the€moral€weight€of€Ms.Smithððs€desire€to€die;€€Dr.Jeffersonððs€personal€knowledge€ofÐ  ° ÐMs.Smith€does€not€count€in€the€moral€calculations.€€Like€him,€they€recognize€that€theirÐ ì ˆ Ðpunishment€is€a€social€construction€and€Ms.Smithððs€pain€is€not.€€Like€him,€they€recognize€thatÐ Ä ` Ðtheir€punishment€(via€that€of€Dr.Jefferson)€is€unjust.€€Like€him,€they€recognize€that€this€injustice€isÐ œ8  Ðtheirs,€not€one€to€dump€off€on€Ms.Smith.Ð t  Ðà  àWe€recognize,€however,€that€Dr.Jefferson€gets€to€choose€his€fate€and€his€family€does€not.€Ð Lè  ÐHis€argument€is€that€the€injustice€is€his,€not€one€to€dump€off€on€Ms.Smith.€€But€when€the€family€isÐ $À Ðnot€given€the€right€to€consent,€are€they€morally€required€to€see€the€injustice€as€theirs€and€to€take€itÐ ü˜ Ðon?€€I€claim€that€their€situation€is€no€different€from€that€of€the€rest€of€the€society,€sinceÐ Ôp ÐDr.Jefferson€is€acting€without€the€consent€of€all.€€So€I€will€end€the€discussion€here€with€theÐ ¬H Ðconclusion€that€the€family€has€no€special€claim,€and€I€will€let€the€argument€be€decided€in€theÐ „  Ðsection€on€the€rule€of€law.Ð \ø ÐÝ‚-HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚-Hê#»Ýà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ3ÚCÚ  Ú.Û€3ÛÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€mercy€killing€will€lead€to€people€being€railroadedÐ  "¨ Ðby€their€relatives€into€ð ðchoosingðð€to€die݃-Hê#»J»ÝÔ à0Œ»ÔŒÐä#€ ` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  ÝÝ‚-HêÿÝÌÔ  ÔÝ  ÝÝ‚-HêȼÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ3ÚDÚ  Ú.Û€3ÛÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€mercy€killing€will€lead€to€a€general€lessening€ofÐ ”'0!$ Ðrespect€for€life,€so€that€peopleððs€lives€cease€to€be€ends€in€themselves€andÐ l)#& Ðinstead€become€means€for€othersðð€ends݃-Hêȼï¼ÝÔ à01½ÔŒÐD+à$(` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  ÝI€lump€3€and€4€together,€because€they€present€us€with€the€same€moral€issues.€€These€issues€mustÐ -¸&* Ðthen€be€applied€to€the€different€areas€of€concern,€and€so€our€conclusions€may€be€different,€but€myÐ d Ðattention€here€is€not€on€the€conclusions€but€on€how€we€come€to€moral€grips€with€these€concernsÐ <Ø Ðin€the€first€place.Ð  ° Ðà  àOur€initial€impression€is€that€these€are€legitimate€considerations.€€If€the€stated€effects€inÐ ì ˆ Ðfact€happen,€then€the€moral€weight€seems€just€as€great€as€Ms.Smithððs€agony.€€However,€there€areÐ Ä ` Ðtwo€moral€counterweights.€€First,€it€is€not€clear€that€these€effects€will€occur.€€In€the€face€ofÐ œ8  ÐMs.Smithððs€very€real€and€present€agony,€it€seems€perverse€to€give€moral€weight€to€anÐ t  Ðhypothetical,€which€may€well€to€be€no€more€than€peopleððs€irrational€fears.€€Second,€even€ifÐ Lè  Ðexperience€shows€that€this€is€indeed€the€effect,€we€must€still€ask€whether€that€is€societyððs€choiceÐ $À Ðor€an€unavoidable€system€effect.€€If€this€outcome€is€an€unavoidable€effect€of€system€constraints,Ð ü˜ Ðthen€the€consequences€are€just€as€much€a€fact€as€Ms.Smithððs€agony,€and€we€are€again€in€theÐ Ôp Ðposition€of€balancing€effects.€€I€would€still€give€heavy€weight€to€the€moral€claim€immediatelyÐ ¬H Ðbefore€us,€because€when€we€ignore€Ms.Smithððs€agony€because€of€some€complex,€invisible€systemÐ „  Ðeffects,€we€harm€the€very€value€we€are€seeking€to€preserve.€€Nevertheless,€even€taking€this€lastÐ \ø Ðinto€consideration,€we€still€need€to€draw€the€balance€between€these€claims.Ð 4 Ð Ðà  àDr.Jeffersonððs€justification€is€certainly€not€one€that€justifies€any€disrespect€for€life;€€indeed,Ð  "¨ Ðboth€he€and€Ms.Smith€would€assert€that€he€is€acting€out€of€respect€for€Ms.Smithððs€dignity€andÐ ä#€  Ðmoral€autonomy.€€I€xxÐ ¼%X" Ðâ âÝ‚-HêÿÝÐ ”'0!$ ÐÔ  Ôâ âÝ  ÝÝ‚-HêìÆÝà0  àà0` (#(#àà  àò òÔ  ÔÚƒ3ÚEÚ  Ú.Û€3ÛÝ  ÝEveryoneððs€concern€that€this€deliberate€lawbreaking€will€undercut€the€rule€of€law݃-HêìÆ1ÇÝÔ à0sÇÔŒÐd` (#` (# ÐŒó óÝ  ÝxxÐ <Ø ÐÝ‚,¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚,¿„ÈÝÚƒ3ÚVIIÚ  ÚÛ€3Û€Ý  Ý€Case€Study:€€Capital€Punishment݃,¿„ȾÈÝóóÔ ò £ÈÔŒÐ ì ˆ ÐŒó óÝ  ÝÓ  ÓÓÓà8  àð ðCapital€punishment€is€our€society's€recognition€of€the€sanctity€of€human€life.ððÐÄ `Ð Ð  Ðà8  àà0` Ð Ð àà0¸ ` Ð ` Ð àà ` àð"ð€U.S.€Senator€Orrin€Hatch,€R„Utah€[xx€I€need€to€get€exact€information€onÐ ²N  Ðthis.]Р< ¸ Ð ¸ Ð  ÐÓ’ÉÓÓ†ÉÓÌ[Hereððs€another€note:€€The€legal€standard€of€insanity,€at€least€as€I€understand€it,€is€that€peopleÐ f  Ðmust€be€capable€of€knowing€right€from€wrong.€€But€what€this€means€is,€ð ð...knowing€òòouróóÐ >Ú  Ð(societyððs)€definition€of€right€and€wrong,€regardless€of€what€the€person€thinks.ðð€€This€rejects€outÐ ² Ðof€hand€the€existence€of€any€other€perspective.€€Iððm€not€advocating€that€we€allow€murder€if€peopleÐ îŠ Ðthink€itððs€o.k.;€€all€Iððm€saying€is€that€to€take€their€life€for€it€is€wrong.]Ð Æb Ðà  àUnder€what€circumstances,€if€any,€should€we€support€capital€punishment?€€This€questionÐ ž: Ðgives€us€the€opportunity€to€lay€out€certain€basic€features€of€the€ways€of€relating€perspective.Ð v Ðà  àFirst,€we€reduce€the€situation€to€its€elementary€characteristics,€meaning€prior€to€anyÐ Nê Ðspecific€form€of€human€organization.€€The€form€of€organization€is€what€weððre€looking€to€establish:€Ð &! Ðboth€the€this€form€and€the€specific€place€of€capital€punishment€within€it.Ð þ"š Ðà  àRegardless€of€the€form€of€society,€our€criterion€is€Ô4‚YÝ |ÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôthe€relational€principleÔ6ÜÏÔÝ‚&ÍOðσÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý dÐÔ€(q.v.).€€We€haveÐ Ö$r! Ðto€be€able€to€say€to€the€condemned€manð!ð€call€him€Bobð!ð,€ð ðI€can€find€no€social€arrangement€thatÐ ®&J # Ðwill€make€you€better€off€without€someone€else€being€made€as€badly€off€or€even€worse€off€thanÐ †(""% Ðyou.ðð€€Weððre€claiming,€in€other€words,€that€if€we€had€a€social€systemð!ð€any€social€systemð!ð€inÐ ^*ú#' Ðwhich€Bob€was€not€executed,€someone€else€would€have€to€be€made€as€badly€off€as€Bob€(i.e.,Ð 6,Ò%) Ðdead)€or€worse€off€(but€itððs€hard€to€imagine€anything€worse€than€being€dead,€which€is€the€loss€ofÐ d Ðall€possible€Good)€as€a€result.€€But€under€our€current€circumstances,€we€have€the€means€toÐ <Ø Ðprevent€Bob€from€killing€someone€else,€so€the€only€question€is€whether€someone€else€gets€killedÐ  ° Ðbecause€we€donððt€kill€Bob.€€Some€people€claim€that€executions€deter€murders.€€According€to€thisÐ ì ˆ Ðtheory,€executing€one€person€will€mean€we€can€anticipate€that€the€number€of€murders€willÐ Ä ` Ðdecrease€more€than€one€over€wheat€they€would€have€been.€€(We€are€speaking€of€the€ð ðaverageðð€orÐ œ8  Ðð ðexpectedðð€number€of€murders,€of€course.׃]×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú19Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð t  Ðà  àLet€us€first€note€the€extreme€contingency€of€that€claim.€€There€is€no€empirical€proof€of€it.€Ð Lè  ÐStudies€purporting€to€show€that€capital€punishment€deters€murder€are€contradicted€by€studiesÐ $À Ðshowing€an€opposite€(or€no)€effect.€€But€regardless€of€whether€a€study€shows€a€deterrent€effect€orÐ ü˜ Ðthe€opposite€effect,€the€validity€of€all€such€studies€is€clouded€by€autocorrelation€of€errors,Ð Ôp Ðnumerous€confounding€factors,׃j×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú20Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€external€factors€simply€increasing€the€error€variance,€smallÐ ¬H Ðsample€size,€the€normal€variability€of€the€outcome€variable€(number€of€murders)€in€the€best€ofÐ „  Ðcircumstances,€and€the€increased€variability€arising€from€having€to€subtract€one€estimated€amountÐ \ø Ð(expected€number€of€people€murdered€were€capital€punishment€laws€to€be€passed)€from€anotherÐ 4 Ð Ðestimated€amount€(the€expected€number€of€people€murdered€in€the€current€circumstances).€€For€allÐ  "¨ Ðof€these€reasons,€studies€of€the€effect€of€capital€punishment€can€produce€only€bogus€conclusions.€Ð d ÐPeopleððs€willingness€to€heed€a€studyððs€conclusion€arise€from€their€basic€intuitions;€€the€studiesÐ <Ø Ðdonððt€produce€the€intuitions.Ð  ° Ðà  àThese€intuitions€can€arise€from€two€sources,€it€seems€to€me.€€Most€legitimately,€they€canÐ ì ˆ Ðstem€from€a€belief€about€how€the€world€works,€namely,€that€punishment€deters€behavior.€€We€willÐ Ä ` Ðcritique€later€the€accuracy€of€that€belief,׃p×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú21Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€but€such€thinking€is€at€least€morally€germane.€€òòNotóóÐ œ8  Ðgermane€is€the€other€source€of€those€intuitions:€€the€desire€for€revenge,€which€induces€people€toÐ t  Ðbelieve€these€things€at€least€ostensiblyð!ð€as€a€specious€means€of€supporting€capital€punishment,€asÐ Lè  Ða€fig€leaf€for€the€true€motive€of€revenge.׃sT×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú22Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð $À Ðà  àOne€might€say€that€it€really€doesnððt€make€any€difference€why€people€believe€something;€Ð ü˜ Ðthe€fact€is€that€they€do,€and€even€if€they€donððt,€it€is€only€the€beliefððs€validity€that€matters.€€ButÔ4‚uÝ |!ÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ô€theÐ Ôp Ðmeans„ends€thesisÔ6¡ßÔÝ‚&ÍOµßƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý < ãßÔ€applies€here:€€if€the€actual€reason€for€killing€someone€is€revenge,€then€that€is€theÐ ¬H Ðòòactualóó€relationship€being€set€up,€regardless€of€the€validity€of€the€other€beliefs.€€And€that€actualÐ „  Ðrelationship€results€in€events€beyond€what€we€contemplate€and€thus€reverberates€forever.€€And€ifÐ \ø Ðthat€relationship€is€not€morally€grounded,€then€what€we€bequeath,€first€to€our€future€selves€andÐ 4 Ð Ðour€future€world,€and€then€to€our€children€and€their€world,€are€the€evil€consequences€of€that€evilÐ  "¨ Ðdeed.€€[xx€I€need€to€phrase€this€in€terms€of€the€relationship,€not€the€deed.]€€The€consequences€mayÐ ä#€  ÐÔ4‚vÝ °ÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôflow€undergroundÔ61ãÔÝ‚&ÍOEãƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý D sãÔ€and€change€form,€but€whether€direct€or€indirect,€whether€in€the€original€form€orÐ ¼%X" Ðanother,€they€represent€part€of€Ô4‚wÝ LÔÝ‚&ÍOÝÔÿÔòòÝ  ÝÔ5  Ôthe€moral€burdenÔ6läÔÝ‚&ÍO€äƒÝóóÔÿÔÝ  ÝÔ7Ý ”®äÔ€that€we€send€to€the€future.Ð d Ðà  àI€believe€that€revenge€is€the€true€motive€for€capital€punishment,€and€I€invite€peopleÐ <Ø Ðsupporting€it€to€examine€their€motives.€€Nevertheless,€the€argument€cannot€be€refuted€simply€byÐ  ° Ðimpugning€peopleððs€motives.€€So€letððs€say€that€someoneð!ð€ð ðYvonneððð!ð€wants€Bob€to€be€executedÐ ì ˆ Ðbecause€she€honestly€believes€that€capital€punishment€saves€lives.€€There€remains€the€irreducibleÐ Ä ` Ðfact€that€Yvonne€is€killing€Bob€for...€a€hunch.׃x×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú23Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€Look€at€the€foreseeable€results€of€YvonneððsÐ œ8  Ðwishes€being€carried€out.€€On€the€one€hand,€we€have€the€clear€consequence€that€people€will€beÐ t  Ðexecuted.€€Today€it€happens€to€be€Bob,€tomorrow€someone€else,€but€someone€is€going€to€die.€€SoÐ Lè  Ðwhen€Yvonne€supports€capital€punishment,€her€relationship€with€Bob€is,€ð ðIððm€killing€you.ðð€€SetÐ $À Ðagainst€that€foreseeable€death,€we€have€a€hunch,€a€fallible€human€belief,€a€belief€assumed€to€beÐ ü˜ Ðsufficient€to€support€the€gravest€consequences€even€when€each€of€us€can€see€our€past€littered€withÐ Ôp Ðbeliefs€we€thought€to€be€true€and€now€think€are€false.€€The€only€thing€we€can€òòknowóó€in€thisÐ ¬H Ðsituation€is€the€relationship€we€set€up€with€Bob€and€othersð!ð€that€we€are€willing€to€kill€based€onlyÐ „  Ðon€a€hunch.׃z×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú24Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×€€And€so€support€for€capital€punishment€puts€us€in€the€position€of€killing€on€a€hunchÐ \ø Ðthat€it€will€save€lives,€based€on€a€hunch€that€this€saving€will€be€even€greater€than€withÐ d Ðincarceration.€€And€if€we€are€comfortable€with€that€position,€then€how€can€we€complain€aboutÐ <Ø Ðothers€killing€òòusóó€on€a€hunch?׃{,×Ý ƒ#ÃÝòòÚ  Ú25Ú  ÚóóÝ  Ý×  ×Ð  ° ÐÝ‚,¿ÿÝÌÔ  Ôò òÔ  ÔòòÝ  ÝÝ‚,¿ríÝÚƒ3ÚVIIIÚ  ÚÛ€3Û€Ý  Ý€Case€Study:€€The€U.S.€Prison€System݃,¿rí¬íÝóóÔ ò ‘íÔŒÐ Ä ` ÐŒó óÝ  ÝPrisons€as€now€constituted€are€also€inhumane;€€in€the€Stage6€view€they€would€exist€only€toÐ œ8  Ðsequester€people,€with€rehabilitation€nice€if€accomplished€but€not€the€primary€point.€€CertainlyÐ t  Ðrehabilitation€would€not€be€a€condition€of€good€treatment.€€[xx€I€was€going€to€put€a€link€to€myÐ Lè  Ðessay€on€the€penal€system€here,€but€I€discovered€I€hadnððt€written€it.€€So€Iððll€just€put€the€discussionÐ $À Ðdirectly€here.]Ð ü˜ ÐÌ[xx€I€need€to€put€a€comment€here€that€other€case€studies€appear€in€Chapter6.]Ð ¬H ÐßA€•) °°xdE°ƒxAßÐ „  ÐÌ[I€just€realized€that€Stage3€sees€a€breakup€of€a€relationship€differently€than€Stage2;€€in€Stage3'sÐ z Ðvision,€we€continue€with€the€relationship€even€as€we€protect€ourselves€against€depredations,€as€IÐ R î Ðam€doing€in€several€situations.€€In€Stage2,€the€breakup€becomes€transformed€into€hostility.]Ð *"Æ  Ї[We€trust€other€people€just€as€we€trust€a€benign€universe.]Ð d ÐÌ[Notes€for€later:€€€Perhaps€we€would€also€require€a€ð ðsocial€impact€statementðð€for€each€policy,Ð  ° Ðevaluating€its€effect€on€the€worst„off.]