Department of Sociology & Anthropology - University of Minnesota Duluth

to top of page

Writing Guide

try the
 UMD Library > Research Tools and Resources > Assignment Calculator
<http://www.d.umn.edu/lib/assign/index.phtml>

 

Pencil

(To Search: Try Ctrl-F)


Introduction and References

For Multilingual Writers -- The New St. Martin's HandbooK

1.00 Problem (Topic) Selection

2.00 Problem Statement (Preliminary Outline)

3.00 Collecting Material

4.00 Literature Review and Note Taking

5.00 Evaluation/Selection of Materials

6.00 Writing the Outline and Headings for Your Paper

7.00 Writing the Paper

8.00 Some Matters of Style

(punctuation, mechanics spelling/diction, documentation)

9.00 Preparing the Final Draft

10.00 Proofreading

11.00 Symbols/Abbreviations for Revision

12.00 Criteria for Assessing Quality of Papers




© 2004 - 2006 University of Minnesota Duluth
University of Minnesota Duluth is an equal opportunity employer and educator
Comments to the Webmaster
 Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

1.00 Problem (Topic) Selection

Select a manageable research problem (i.e., "topic") and one for which adequate source materials are available. Your instructor will help you if you are having difficulty. See also section 3.01:1-2.

Prewrite and free write on your problem or topic; that is, put some of your preliminary thoughts down on paper. Ask yourself the questions:

Then write nonstop for 10-15 minutes on your topic.

From that writing pick out a single word, idea, or example that interests you.

Now write on your word, idea, or example nonstop for one half hour. Before you start, read over everything you have written earlier, get your goal firmly in mind, and then write without stopping. Called "directed free writing," this process produces the raw material you can use in further defining your problem statement (see section 2.00). See Hodges and Whitten, 33d for details on getting started and on "prewriting" and "free writing."

(See also Hodges and Whitten, 33b, 34a.)

 Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

2.00 Problem Statement (Preliminary Outline)

Develop an outline or plan for your paper.

An outline is like a road map in that it lets you see both where you are headed and what progress you are making at getting where you are going with the time and energy at hand. A good outline helps you get where you are going more efficiently, it lessens the chances that you will wander off the desired road, and, most importantly, it gives you some sense of where you are at. In the writing process you need to be able to judge your progress. An outline helps you do that. If you can not judge your progress (even if that sometimes is s--l--o--w) you will likely wander about frustrated. A simple outline can prevent that frustration; it also usually improves your writing.

Clearly define your research problem (i.e., "topic"). A one-half-to-one-page outline statement, developed from your prewriting and free writing, will help clarify your problem and your approach to it. (Suggestions for developing this rough outline into a more formal outline are contained in sections 6.00-6.01.)

Your problem statement should initially both raise specific questions and contain tentative conclusions and/or expectations. See also sections 6.00, and 12.00-12.04.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 33e.)

 Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

3.00 Collecting Material

Start early to collect materials for your paper. Use the library resources, interviews, and personal experiences to begin to build your bibliography and note files.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 34b.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

3.01 In the Library

  1. The On-line Library Catalog

    To get a quick idea of the library's holdings for your paper, look up your topic in the On-line Library Catalog.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, pp. 397-400, especially samples of subject cards on p. 398.)

    Copy precisely the call numbers, titles of materials, and location of materials which sound useful for your paper. See Hodges and Whitten, p. 398, for examples. Since 1975 UMD has used the Library of Congress (LC) classification system to catalog its holdings (for e.g., HQ 536 .S65 1986).

    If you do not know what to look for, consult the Library of Congress Subject Headings books, located near the Reference Desk. That will give you information on the specific topics and subtopics which you may need to use in your research. It will also give you a few general LC call numbers (so you can go to the book shelves, or "stacks," and look around in relevant areas), information on cross-referencing, and suggestions for looking up information.

    In general, the more specific you can be when using these research tools, the more useful will be the materials you discover. If you need help, talk with your instructor and/or the person at the Reference Desk on the second floor of the library.

    In the main library at UMD you will find books on the third floor and on the fourth floor.

    "Print periodicals are shelved alphabetically by title; each periodical also has a periodical number that can be used to locate it. The most RECENT ten (10) years are shelved on the Third Floor of the Library and those issues older than ten (10) years are located in the LIBRARY ANNEX. Periodicals from the most recent five years can only be used in the library; older periodicals can be checked out."

    You will find the microform documents on the third floor, and the Audiovisual materials at the Reserve Media Desk near the Circulation desk on the first floor of the library.

    Do not forget about the special collections and centers (see No. 7 below).

  3. Indexes, Abstracts, Published Bibliographies, Encyclopedias, and Reviews

    Use indexes, abstracts, and published bibliographies to help you locate materials for your paper. Found at the second floor Indexes section, the standard indexes include Readers' Guide to Periodical Literature, Social Sciences Index, and The New York Times Index; note also those special indexes listed in section 4.01. See Appendix, sections 17.03-17.04, for sample entries and explanations of various indexes.

    Published "abstracts," since they briefly summarize works as well as list them, are particularly useful in doing research. Consulting the abstracts listed in sections 4.01-4.06 will assist you in developing preliminary ideas for your paper, and will save you days of work on your project. See Appendix, section 17.05, for sample entry from Sociological Abstracts. Note that you often first need to locate a reference number, then use that number to find the abstract itself.

    General encyclopedias, such as Encyclopedia Americana or Encyclopaedia Britannica, offer useful brief overviews of topics, as well as suggestions for further readings. Specialized encyclopedias, such as the International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences, Encyclopedia of Religion and Ethics, provide more detailed coverage of selected topics. Do not overlook other specialized reference works, such as Statistical Abstract of the United States, Atlas of American History, Goode's World Atlas, and the Reference Encyclopedia of the American Indian. Look for these in the reference collection.

    Annual reviews usually provide longer and more thorough summaries of selected topics than do abstracts and encyclopedias. For good overviews of various subjects look at the current and back volumes of one or more of the following Annual Reviews: (Annual Review of . . . ) Anthropology, Ecology and Systematics, Psychology, Public Health, Sociology. These publications provide excellent background information as well as good bibliographies. See sections 4.01-4.06.

  4. Computerized Searches

    You can also access information from major computerized abstracting and indexing databases in the Library, many of which are full-text databases. To take advantage of these resources see the individual at the Reference Desk on the second floor of the library.

  5. Periodical Holdings

    To find out what periodicals, news sources, and magazines are in the UMD library consult Periodicals Owned by U.M.D Library, and/or the on-line Library Catalog. Consult copies located by the second floor Reference Desk.

    Look for newspapers across from the Reserve Desk. Periodicals, arranged alphabetically, are located in the Main Periodicals Room on the Second Floor.

    Microform periodicals are found behind the Periodical Help Desk.

  6. Microform Holdings and Other Non-Print Media

    Certain holdings in the library are on microfilm or microfiche (in the Reference Collection), or are films, videotapes or recordings. Except for periodicals on microfilm these are catalogued the same as books. Use the microform sources in the Microform Center on the second floor of the library.

  7. MINITEX and Interlibrary Loans

    If materials are not available at UMD, order them from another library (at no cost to you) through the MINITEX or Interlibrary Loan networks. Allow at least ten working days to receive your materials. Specific information on this service is available at the second floor Interlibrary Loan Desk.

  8. Special Libraries, Collections, and Centers

    In addition to the large Health Science Library, UMD houses several special libraries and collections. Special libraries include: Geology, and Teaching Materials.

    Special collections include: The UMD Archives, The Ramseyer-Northern Bible Society Museum Collection, Children's Collection, the Electronic Data & Documents (EDD) CD-ROM System, Government Documents (a special index for these is located behind the Reference Desk), and the Voyageur.

    The Northeast Minnesota Historical Center, located in the Library Annex -- second floor, and the various academic centers located in the schools and colleges can also be most helpful in researching your paper.

    The NRRI Library, located on the third floor of the Natural Resources Research Instiute, 5013 Miller Trunk Highway (about a twenty minute drive from the UMD Library) can also be helpful.

    The Play Collection, formerly housed in the UMD Department of Theatre, is now available on the upper level of the Library Annex.

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

3.02 Bibliography/Bibliography Cards

On 3x5 or 4x6 cards compile a preliminary bibliography of useful sources of information and opinions on your problem (that is, your "topic"). This will usually include books, journal articles ("magazines"), and other sources.

Use the following format for your bibliography cards:

  1. each of your sources must have one bibliography card, which should include all the information you will need for documentation (see sections 8.08-8.14); (b) put each entry on a separate card so that you can drop or add them and alphabetize them without recopying; (c) before you begin to write, arrange your preliminary bibliography items in the order of their apparent importance; and, (d) as you prepare your "References" section arrange the bibliography items alphabetically. See Hodges and Whitten, pp. 407, 409 (top), and 444 (top) for other examples.

    Bibliography Card for a Book:

    (1.) library call no.
    *2a-c. Author's last name, First and Middle initials.1

    *3.
    (year of publication).

    *4a-c.
    Title: Subtitle of the book (xx ed.)2.

    *5a-b.
    Place of publication: Publisher.
    (6.)
    If the source has a bibliography it is useful to note that here. If you are using just part of the book, also not that here.
    1If a source has no author refer to the work by its title. In the "References" the work is alphabetized by its title.

    2Add edition information for second and subsequent editions of a work.

    For an essay or article contained in a collection of articles use:

    (1.) library call no.
    *2a-c. Essay author's last name, First and Middle initials.
    *3. (year of publication of the collection).
    *7a-b. Title: Subtitle of the article.
    *8a-d. In (First and Middle initials of editor plus Last name of editor) (Ed.),
    *4a-c. Title: Subtitle of the book (pp. xxx-yyy).
    *5a-b. Place of publication: Publisher.
    (*6.)
    Original publication date and/or bibliography note.


    Note punctuation in samples! An asterisk (*) here indicates required information.

    Do not confuse a "note card" with a "bibliography card" (see section

    3.03).

    Bibliography Card for a Journal or Magazine Article

    (1.) library call no.
    *2a-c. Author's last name, First and Middle initials.1

    *3.
    (year of publication).

    *4a-b.
    Title: Subtitle of the article (xx ed.).

    *5a-c.
    Name of the Journal/Magazine/Periodical, volume number, page numbers for enter article.
    (6.)
    Add notes which you may find helpful. Such as: "Check for information on the MN Chippewa Tribe."
    1If a source has no author refer to the work by its title. In the "References" the work is alphabetized by its title.

    The bibliography card for an essay written by A. L. Campa and found on pp. 77-82 of a book of collected essays entitled Crossing Cultures should look like this:

    (1.) PE 1417 .C75 1983
    *2a-c. Campa, A. L.
    *3. (1987).
    *7a-b.

    Anglo vs. Chicano: Why?

    *8a-d. In H. Knepler & M. Knepler (Eds.),
    *4a-c. Crossing cultures: Readings for composition (2nd ed.).
    + pp. (pp. 77-82).
    *5a-b. New York: Macmillan.
    (6.) (Original work published in 1972)


    • Capitalize all proper nouns ("Chicano" in this example) and the first word of the titles ("Anglo" and "Crossing" in example) and subtitles ("Why" and "Readings" in this example).

    • Use the date of publication of the book, but note in parentheses at the end of your citation the original publication date of the article or excerpt.
Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

3.03 Notes/Note Cards

Take notes. Put your initial evaluations, summaries and paraphrases on note cards, preferably the standard 3x5 or 4x6 cards available especially for this purpose. Include the following information on your card. An asterisk [*] here indicates required information.

  1. An assignment number, if there is one.

  2. *A heading, using one or two appropriate key words or phrases which indicate the main idea on the card.

  3. *The source of the note, including the last name of the author and the exact page(s) from which your note is taken. (If you have more than one author with the same last name, also use first and middle initials.) Cite page numbers accurately.

  4. *A summary or paraphrase of the source, rather than a lengthy quote. If you do quote, be sure to use quotation marks to distinguish verbatim quotation from paraphrase (see section 8.07).

    Begin each entry (fact, idea, summary, paraphrase, or quotation) on a separate card. Put only closely related ideas on a single card. This will later allow you to easily regroup them as you work on your paper.

  5. Your own ideas placed in brackets. Clarify what part of the note is your own idea and what came from the source. You must avoid plagiarism! You must cite another as author even when you do not use his/her exact words. If in doubt, cite.

Use the following format for your note cards. See Hodges and Whitten, pp. 409, 444, 446, and 456 for other examples.

(1.) assignment no.
*2. key word or phrase
*3a-b. Author's last name, exact page no(s).
*4. summaries/paraphrases of source
(5.)


[put your own ideas here, in brackets]





Note cards for the A. L. Campa essay from Crossing Cultures should look like this:

(1.) #1
*2. Hispanic-Anglo cultural differences
*3a-b. Campa, 77-82.
*4. Put your summaries/paraphrases of the article here.
Be thorough, yet concise.


(5.)



[put your personal reaction/evaluation here, in brackets, to indicate
that they are your ideas and opinions rather than the author's)




  • The page numbers 77-82 in this example indicate that the summaries/paraphrases on this card were taken from pages 70-71.
    Do not list all of the pages for the article or chapter unless the card summarizes all of those pages.

Remember that a "bibliography card" is not a "note card." A "bibliography card" contains titles, authors, dates, full page numbers, and such materials as you may need later in the "References" section of your paper (see sections 8.10-8.13). Note cards contain synopses and paraphrases of the source material. Each of your sources should have one bibliography card; you may have many note cards from each source, with each note card containing only closely related ideas.

Consult section 34c of Hodges and Whitten for further information.

 Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

4.00 Literature Review and Note Taking

A review of the literature (preliminary bibliography items) may:

  1. indicate what research, both theoretical and empirical, has been previously conducted on this topic;

  2. assist in delineating the specific focus of your paper(s);

  3. suggest a theoretical framework for your interpretation of findings;

  4. suggest measures of concepts used in the research; and,

  5. suggest the need for additional analysis of previous studies.

    Your literature review should include a summary of: (a) general areas of agreement, (b) general areas in which there are questions, and (c) specific questions your paper addresses.

    Write a summary of relevant background materials for each of your sources. This will facilitate the literature review in your final paper.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 34c.)

    You will find the following periodicals and works good sources for information in sociology, anthropology, and geography. If you can not find these in the library, ask for them at the reference desk on the second floor.

    Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

    4.01 Basic Reference Sources

    Abstracts in Anthropology
    Alternative Press Index
    Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics
    Annual Review of Public Health
    Annual Review of Psychology
    Crime and Delinquency Abstracts
    Criminal Justice Abstracts
    Current Geographical Publications
    Dissertation Abstracts
    Ethnographic Bibliography of North America
    GeoAbstracts
    Humanities Index
    International Encyclopedia of the Social Sciences
    Monthly Catalogue (U.S. Government Printing Office)
    New York Times Index
    PAIS (Public Affairs Information Service)
    Psychological Abstracts
    Reviews in Anthropology
    Social Science Citation Index
    Social Sciences Index
    Social Work Research and Abstracts
    Sociological Abstracts
    Standard Periodical Directory (pp. 61-4)
    Ulrich's International Periodical Dictionary
    Women Studies Abstracts

    Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

    4.02 General Journals

    American Behavioral Scientist
    Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science
    Environment and Behavior
    Futures
    International Social Science Journal
    Philosophy of the Social Sciences
    Journal of Popular Culture
    The Public Interest
    Public Policy
    Regional Science Perspectives

    Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

    4.03 Anthropology/Archaeology

    American Anthropologist
    American Antiquity
    American Ethnologist
    American Journal of Archaeology
    American Journal of Physical Anthropology
    Anatolian Studies
    Annual Review of Anthropology
    Anthropologica
    Antiquity
    Archaeology
    Biblical Archaeologist
    Biblical Archaeology Review
    Current Anthropology
    Ethnology
    Handbook of Middle American Indians
    Handbook of North American Indians
    Human Organization
    Journal of Anthropological Research
    Journal of Archaeology Science
    Journal of Field Archaeology
    Journal of Near Eastern Studies
    Journal of Royal Anthropological Institute
    Language in Society
    Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts
    Journal of the Royal Anthropological Institute (incorporating Man)
    Minnesota Archaeologist
    Oceania
    Practicing Anthropology
    Wisconsin Archaeologist
    Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

    4.04 Criminal Justice

    Crime and Delinquency
    Federal Probation
    Issues in Criminology
    Journal of Criminal Law, Criminology, and Police Science
    Journal of Police Science and Administration
    Journal of Research in Crime and Delinquency
    Law and Society Review
    Police Chief
    Trial
    Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

    4.05 Geography

    American Cartographer
    Area
    Association of American Geographers. Annals
    Canadian Geographer Cartographia
    Economic Geography
    Geografisk Tidsskrift
    Geografiska Annaler
    Series A: Physical Geography
    Series B: Human Geography
    Geographical Journal
    Geographical Magazine
    Geographical Review
    Geography
    Institute of British Geographers. Transactions
    Journal of Cultural Geography
    Journal of Geography
    Journal of Historical Geography
    Landscape
    Progress in Human Geography
    Progress in Cultural Geography
    Singapore Journal of Tropical Geography
    Soviet Geography
    Urban Geography
    Weatherwise
    Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

    4.06 Sociology

    • Web Resources

    • Hardcopy Resources
      • Acta Sociologica
      • Administrative Science Quarterly
      • American Journal of Sociology
      • American Sociological Review
      • Annual Review of Sociology
      • British Journal of Sociology
      • Demography
      • Environment and Behavior
      • Human Relations
      • Industrial Relations
      • Journal of Conflict Resolution
      • Journal of Marriage and Family Living
      • Journal of Personality and Social Psychology
      • Journal of Social Issues
      • Journal of Social Psychology
      • Organization Behavior and Human Performance
      • Population Bulletin
      • Population Index
      • Public Administration Review
      • Public Opinion Quarterly
      • Quarterly Journal of Studies on Alcohol
      • Rural Sociology
      • Social Forces
      • Social Problems
      • Social Psychology Quarterly
      • Social Research
      • Society
      • Sociological Abstracts
      • Sociological Inquiry
      • Sociological Methods and Research
      • Sociological Quarterly
      • Sociology and Social Research
      • Sociology of Education
      • Urban Affairs Quarterly

      Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

      4.07 Non-Print Media

      Have you considered non-print sources such as cassette recordings, video programs, films, lectures and interviews? For more information on non-print audiovisual sources consult the staff of the Learning Resources Center (165 Library). See also section 3.01:5.

      Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

      4.08 Humanities

      Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

      4.09 Classics

      Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

      4.10 American Studies

      Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

      4.11 WWW Sites

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

5.00 Evaluation/Selection of Materials

Study and evaluate all the evidence you have gathered; then select the body of information you expect to present in the paper. Follow sections 6.00 and 7.00-7.07 in drafting your paper.

Revise your paper at least twice before handing it in.

Have a friend critically review an early draft! Read your paper out loud before you hand it in.

See also How to Critically Analyze Information Sources, and How to Evaluate the Sources You Find.

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

6.00 Writing the Outline and Headings for Your Paper

Follow an outline while writing your paper. Before you do any further writing, revise your original problem statement (see section 2.00) into a formal outline in such a way that you can later use the main outline headings as the headings and subheadings for your paper. Good headings and subheadings provide a graphic scheme of the logic of your paper. They also help your reader to easily follow its organization.

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

6.01 Recommended Outline

The main points of your paper (Introduction, items in the major ideas section [the Body], and Conclusion) should form the major headings of your formal outline. Eventually these major outline headings should also appear as headings in your paper itself. The supporting ideas for each of these main points should form the subheadings. The major headings (I., II., III., A., B., C., in the outline below) and the subheadings (1., 2., 3., in the outline below) should have at least two parts. If you have smaller divisions to your outline and paper [a., b., c., (1), (2), (3) in the outline below], they may be one or more parts. Major ideas should be grammatically parallel [(I. with II. with III.) and (A. with B. with C.)] in the outline below). See section 7.07:2, 16.

A brief one-or-two sentence summary for each part will help you organize your ideas and will help you to identify potential "trouble spots." See Hodges and Whitten, p. 369 for a sample. Read section 12.00.

Use an outline similar to the one which follows. See Hodges and Whitten 33f, especially the examples on pp. 368-370. If you know the outlining system taught in Composition 1110 and set forth in Socrates: A College Writing Program, use that.

See section 9.08 for the correct ordering of the paper's parts.





[Center Double-spaced Title Here, Using Upper and

Lower Case Letters, and Using No Underlining,

Quotation Marks or Brackets.]



I. Introduction (See section 7.01)

[Add a double-spaced thesis statement here which indicates what you intend to show in your essay as a whole. This will likely later become your final introduction.]

 

II. Body (See section 7.02)

A. Major idea (or claim) one (Problem Definition Paragraph)

[state major idea, then develop it with supporting ideas]

1. Supporting idea

a. Example or illustration for supporting idea

(1) Detail for example or illustration

(2) Detail for example or illustration

b. Example or illustration for supporting idea

(1) Detail for example or illustration

(2) Detail for example or illustration

(3) Detail for example or illustration

2. Supporting idea

a. Example or illustration for supporting idea

(1) Detail for example or illustration

(2) Detail for example or illustration

b. Example or illustration for supporting idea

3. Conclusion to (A.).

B. Major idea (or claim) two (One or more argumentative paragraphs informing the reader about the problem and its background)

[For each paragraph state major idea, then develop it with supporting ideas]

1. Supporting idea

a. Example or illustration for supporting idea

b. Example or illustration for supporting idea

c. Example or illustration for supporting idea

(1) Detail for example or illustration

(2) Detail for example or illustration

2. Supporting idea

a. Example or illustration for supporting idea

(1) Detail for example or illustration

(2) Detail for example or illustration

b. Example or illustration for supporting idea

c. Example or illustration for supporting idea

3. Supporting idea

a. Example or illustration for supporting idea

b. Example or illustration for supporting idea

4. Conclusion to (B.).

C. Major idea (or claim) three . . . .

[This may take the form of a paragraph acting acting as a transition between the above background information and your further evaluation and interpretation of the problem and its solution(s). Include supporting information as above.]

D. Major idea (or claim) four . . . .

[One or more paragraphs may present alternative solutions or interpretations of the problem. Include supporting information as above.]

 

III. Conclusion to the Paper (See section 7.03)

Donald W. Larmouth, in Socrates (Acton, MA: Copley Publishing Group, 1986, p. 214), suggests the concluding paragraph or section contain "conclusion-signal, summary of problem, background, and evaluative conclusions, and the overall thesis statement--either a recommendation of the preferred alternative or the more satisfactory factual interpretation."

 

IV. Works Cited (See sections 8.10-8.14)

 

V. Appendices (if any) (See section 7.06)

 

 

 

 

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

6.02 Seriation within a Paragraph or Sentence

To indicate organization within the same paragraph or sentence use lower case letters (not underlined) in parentheses, for example, "(a)." See other examples in sections 3.02 and 4.00.

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.00 Writing the Paper

Write a first draft following your outline (see sections 1.00, 2.00, and 6.00-6.01). Quickly execute this draft, which should present your ideas in rough form. In subsequent drafts you may delete material, improve wording, make style consistent, and correct mechanical errors (see Hodges and Whitten, 33h.) Read sections 7.00-7.07, 8.00-8.09.

Your paper should have an introduction (see section 7.01), a body (see section 7.02), a conclusion (see section 7.03), and a list of "References" (see section 7.04); it may also have an "Abstract" (see section 7.05) and/or an "Appendix" (see section 7.06).

(See Hodges and Whitten, 33g, 34e.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.01 Introduction to Paper

  1. In the first part of your introduction define the problem ("topic"), indicate its significance, and review relevant scholarly literature (see section 4.00). "Define" here means to bound or establish limits; that is, you should indicate what is included and excluded from consideration.

  2. In the next part of the introduction state your methodological approach and conclusions.

  3. Write the final version of the introduction last. This helps to avoid writer's block and ensures that your introduction accurately reflects the contents of your paper.

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.02 Body of Paper

  1. The body of the paper presents your major points. Thus it should include your evidence, the arguments for and against your hypothesis, and your organized, expository discussion explaining and summarizing your position. (See 12.00-12.04.)

  2. Transfer the evidence from your notes (see sections 3.02 and 12.03) to your research paper in a manner both logical and critical. (See Hodges and Whitten, 31a-c.)

  3. Effective writing presents excellent content in clear, concise, correct sentences. See section 7.07 for helpful suggestions. A good dictionary, a thesaurus or dictionary of synonyms, and a writing guide remain essential tools for any writer.

  4. You must document evidence with in-text citations, according to a standard form (see sections 8.08-8.13). Make ideas, thoughts, arguments, theories, facts, or evidence you include very clear to the reader.

    The absence of a citation (or a quotation with a citation) implies either that you are the source or that the item is commonly known by all. Where you are not the source, you must always indicate the source by a citation, even if you have summarized or paraphrased another source in your own words. Of course if you have used the same words as the source, you must also use quotation marks to enclose them. (See Hodges and Whitten, 16, 34e.) Use APA in-text style (see section 8.07).

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.03 Conclusion(s)

Your concluding section should summarize your paper and judiciously present your conclusions based on the evidence given. The last paragraph of a paper should round out the subject and give the final emphasis. It should also sound like a last paragraph and leave the reader with exactly the impression you intended. Quite often a statement of "suggestions for further research" is appropriate.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 33g.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.04 List of References ("Bibliography")

List all the works used and/or referred to in the text and notes, but only those you have cited or used. Do not list works you have not used.

See section 8.14 for suggestions on the placement and arrangement of the references.

(See Hodges and Whitten, pp. 478-480; 34e.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.05 Abstract

Occasionally in college writing you may want or need to add a brief (usually 75-150 words), concise yet comprehensive summary of your paper in the form of an abstract. If you have an abstract, begin it on page two (i.e., the page after the title page), typed single-spaced in block format (i.e., without indentation) following the centered title "Abstract."

See "Abstracts," Maxine C. Hairston. Successful Writing (2nd ed., 1986). New York: W.W. Norton, pp. 223 - 227, for information on "Promissory Abstracts," and "Summary Abstracts"

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.06 Appendix

You may place in an appendix tables of data too long to work into the body of a paper, long quotations, a copy of questionnaires you may have used, or primary data--but term papers usually do not require this. (See Hodges and Whitten, pp. 499-500, and section 17.00.)

If you use an appendix, begin that on a separate page and include it after the "Endnotes" (content endnote section, if there is one), or after the text (if there are no "Endnotes" [cf., 9.08]). If you type materials for the Appendix, type them double-spaced, following the centered title "Appendix." If you have more than one, begin each on a separate page and label them "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. Indent the first line(s) five spaces.

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

7.07 Helpful Hints:

  1. Write to a specific identifiable audience. Your audience helps you define and shape your subject, and affects your emphasis, level of diction, content, tone, sentence and paragraph length, the amount of background material you need to include, the amount of jargon (technical vocabulary) you may use, and so forth. Try to analyze the needs and interests of your audience and write to those. Always assume your readers are intelligent, though perhaps uninformed.

    When revising keep your audience continually in mind.

    When writing a research paper for a class, write to your classmates who want to learn something about your subject; do not write to the instructor! Try to write with a specific individual in mind, an individual you consider "typical" of the group.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 33c, 19b-d, 19g.)

  2. Choose a suitable essay structure and hold to it. Simplify a complex organization by clustering common elements under headings and subheadings in your formal outline and in your paper. Why not try to handle like elements statistically (see sections 6.00-6.02)?

    In general, never list more than four or five examples without using a new subheading. (See "On sharpening sociologists' prose," H. C. Selvin and E. K. Wilson, 1984, Sociological Quarterly, 25, 205-222.)

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 33f, 32b, 29.)

  3. When introducing a concept or important term, briefly explain your understanding of it, but avoid dictionary definitions.

    When defining, proceed from the general to the particular: state the general class to which the thing or idea to be defined belongs (e.g., "Pressure flaking is a technique for preparing stone tools . . ."), then the particular features of the thing defined (". . . wherein small flakes are removed from the edge of a larger rock fragment by applying pressure with a hard object, such as a rock or an antler tip . . . . "). Add an example to your definition (". . . Pressure-flaked tools include the well-known and beautiful pressure-retouched laurel-leaf Solutrean blades.").

    Keep your definition as simple as possible, but make sure it pertains to all instances of the thing defined.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 32d[7], 23e[2].)

  4. Use relevant examples in the body of the paper!

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 32d[2], 32d[7],23e[2].)

  5. Through interpretation, make clear the relevance of examples or data. Do not simply present examples or data without interpreting their place and importance. Examples and data do not speak for themselves. Their message is usually not self-evident.

  6. Add a diagram (graph, pie chart, bar chart, histogram, sketch, etc.) or drawing to your work. These illustrations help explain your point, and they allow you to present information quickly, clearly and concisely. Effective illustrations enable you to use fewer words than would otherwise be needed.

    Number illustrations and include concise headings. Place illustrations in the most appropriate locations; do not simply add them at the beginning or the end. (See section 9.07 for instructions on placement in text.) You must have at least one reference to each illustration in the text.

    Drawings, maps, and plans should be made to scale, with the scale marked.

  7. Interweave quotations with interpretive words to relate the quotations to your arguments and explanations. As a general rule, your interpretation of a quotation should be at least as long as the quotation itself.

    Do not use quotations excessively.

    Avoid long quotations.

  8. Avoid general statements except as part of your introduction or summary statement. Remember that generalizations often need qualification.

  9. Avoid value-laden words. For example, avoid words like "primitive," "uncivilized," "savages."

  10. You will get along much better in life if you avoid "to be" verbs as if they represented ignoble carriers of the bubonic plague. For a review of these verbs look up "be" in your dictionary. In part, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language contains the following information:

    (See Hodges and Whitten 29d.)

    be v.

    Tense/Number 1st person 2nd person 3rd person
    Present Tense


    singular
    		 am are is
    plural
    		 are areare
    Past Tense


    singular
    		 was werewas
    plural
    		 were werewere
    Present Participle: being
    Present Subjunctive: be
    Past Participle: been
    Past Subjunctive: were

    Examples of how to change sentences with too many "to be" verbs (* indicates less desirable forms):

    *"A great deal of importance is also placed on individuals who are wealthy."

    "People place a great deal of importance on wealthy individuals."

    *"The position of achievement that was strived for was the 'eldership.'"

    "Men strove to achieve 'eldership.'"

  11. Use active voice and choose verbs carefully. Use verbs of action as much as possible. These show the subject doing something, not just being something. They also more clearly show who is doing what to whom. Passive constructions make for unneeded extra words and syllables (* indicates less desirable forms).

    *"Girls are rewarded by teachers for being kind, quiet, and dependent."

    "Teachers reward girls for being . . . ."

    *"The caves were discovered by four young girls who were chasing after their dog."

    "Four young girls chasing a dog discovered the caves."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 29d, 27a; pp. 7, 73, 502, 508-09, 520, 527.)

  12. Use concrete nouns instead of abstract words. A concrete word names something you can see, touch, taste, smell, or hear. An abstract word names a feeling (e.g., love), a state of being (e.g., misery), an idea (e.g., democracy), a theory (e.g., evolution), a field of study (e.g., anthropology), or a class of things too broad to be visualized (e.g., creature, plant, organism). Abstract words sum up the total effect of many particular, concrete things.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 20a.)

  13. Use slang, jargon (technical vocabulary), and figures of speech sparingly.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 19c-g, 29a[4].)

  14. Speak directly to the subject, rather than with circumlocution. Shun needless introductory and connecting phrases (* indicates less desirable forms).

    *"I thought you might be interested in someone else's ideas about man's evolution regardless."

    "I think evolution . . . "; or, simply say what you want about evolution: "Evolution stinks."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 20-22, 29-30.)

  15. Use appropriate transitions.

  16. Omit needless words! Most often prefatory phrases ending in "that" ("It is thought that . . . .") can be eliminated. Look at the following examples (* indicates less desirable forms):

    *"First of all, I would like to give you my definition of what stereotyping means. Stereotyping means . . . ."

    "Stereotyping means . . . ."

    *"It seems to me people tend to believe great fallacies . . . ."

    "People tend to believe great . . . ."

    *"It is when people actually start believing these misleading notions that it begins  . . . ."

    "When people start believing these misleading notions, it begins . . . ."

    *"Another part of their culture that included killing and cannibalism was war."

    "Their warfare included killing and cannibalism."

    *"The meat was described as being salty and tasting much like pork."

    "The salty meat tasted much like pork."

    *"There are four different criterias that could be used to analyze the nature and extent that poverty has in this country."

    "Four criteria illustrate the nature and extent of poverty in this country."

    *"An article in Science magazine says that primitive stone tools made from pebbles or irregular pieces of stone have been unearthed along with Homo habilis remains (1965, 29). The article in Science magazine also says that a rough circle of loosely piled stones has been found along with Homo habilis remains on a living floor site at Olduvai Gorge (1965, 31)."

    "Along with Homo habilis remains, Mary Leakey unearthed primitive stone tools made from pebbles or irregular stone pieces. In this Olduvai living floor site she also found a rough circle of loosely piled stones (Science, 1965, 31)."

    Introductory phrases ending with "that" can usually be eliminated to reduce wordiness:

    *"Another interesting fact is that the teeth unearthed from this period did not show any cavities."

    "The teeth unearthed from this period showed no cavities."

    *"It was found that they had separate areas for cooking, butchering and for putting their refuse or garbage."

    "They had separate areas for cooking, butchering, and putting their garbage."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 21.)

  17. Use parallel construction.

    1. In general, line up nouns with nouns of the same type, verbs with verbs of the same type, phrases with phrases of the same type, and so on. Examples:

      "The Maya, Aztec and Inca developed writing systems."

      "I came, I saw, I conquered."

      "Love me, or leave me, or let me be lonely."

      "He made his living by singing, dancing, and passing the hat."

      "Singing he sounded wonderful, while dancing he looked stupid."

    2. When you use "not only" you must also use "but also." The same principle applies for the other correlatives: "either--or," "neither--nor," "both--and," and "whether--or."

    3. Elements in an outline, as well as chapter titles, subtitles, and headings should be parallel (see section 6.01). Group together elements like the following:

      • Navajo, Chippewa, Iroquois, Dakota

      • Upper Great Lakes, Southern Plains

      • Bivariate Methods, Multivariate Methods

      • Nationalism, Feminism

      • Ceramic Production, Ceramic Use and Disposal, Ceramic Change

      • The Late Colonial Period, The Immediate Postcolonial Period, The 1970s & After

      • Hohokam, Mogollon, Anasazi

      • Language and Medicine, Language and Law, Language and Education

      • Carlton, Esko, Proctor

      • Systems Theory, Systemic Concepts, Systems Models

      • Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic

      • Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa

    4. The nature of things compared must be parallel. For example, compare:

      • capitalism with socialism, not Russia

      • Christianity with mysticism, not mystics

      • Navajo with other Indian nations, not with the United States or Brazil.

      However, you may compare group ratios (e.g., "16:1") or rates (e.g., "15/1000", or "0.015") with national ratios or rates, or group percentages (e.g., "18.2%") with national percentages.

      (See Hodges and Whitten, 26a-b, 29g, 32b, 33f.)

  18. Present opposing views briefly, whether using illustrations or summaries.

  19. Feel free to write briefly about relevant personal experiences, but avoid long digressive personal anecdotes.

  20. Emphasize your own ideas and interpretations as you present information. Do not merely paraphrase your sources. Indicate both demonstrated support for your statement and where you are speculating or presenting other evidence based on suspicion, faith, "common sense," or other reasons. (See Hodges and Whitten, 31a-c.) Also indicate whether the points you make represent the way things are or the way you think they should be.

  21. Use sex-neutral language. Consider using words and phrases like the following:2

    USE

    		RATHER THAN

    humankind, humanity,
    people, human beings

    		mankind, man

    human achievements

    		man's achievements

    the average person,
    people in general

    		the average man

    work force, workers,
    human resources

    		manpower

    "The search for
    knowledge has led
    us into . . . ."

    		"Man's search for
    knowledge has led
    him into . . . ."

    ". . . monkeys, apes,
    and humans."

    		". . . monkeys, apes and
    man."

    "Each person has her
    or his . . . .

    		"Each person has
    his . . . ."

    "he" or "she"
    (or "s/he")

    		 "he" (in reference to
    people in general)

    "chair," "chairperson,"
    or "moderator"

    		"chairman"

    "Individuals have their
    own ways of . . . .

    		"Each person had his
    own way of . . . ."

    "Neanderthals . . . ."

    		"Neanderthal man . . . ."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, p. 68.)

  22. Your paper should reflect careful revision. After you have checked for errors, have another person read your paper to check for logic, clarity, spelling, grammar, mechanics, and punctuation. (See Hodges and Whitten, 33h.) Do not forget to use your word processor's spelling checker.

    Before you hand in your paper, read it to yourself out loud.

    For a review of revising papers, see the twenty-eight minute videotape Revising Prose (or have a look at the book by the same title) by Richard A. Lanham, available at the Learning Resource Center, 165 Library (UMD library No. VC 301).

    If you can, allow some time to elapse between drafts. This will help you view your own writing more objectively.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 8e-f, 33h, 34e[3]. Note "Reviser's Checklist" on pp. 386-88.)

 Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.00 Some Matters of Style (See also section 7.07, "Helpful Hints.")

Use correct grammar and style conventions as defined by rules in a currently used college handbook of English.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 1-7.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.01 Punctuation

Use correct punctuation according to the rules set forth in college handbooks of English. Dictionaries often contain a section (usually in the back) on conventional uses of punctuation.

Be careful not to confuse ;/ and :/, ( )/ and [ ]/, and --/ and -/. Use commas carefully and correctly.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 12-17.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.02 Numbers

Usage varies, but in general, numbers that one cannot spell out in one or two words (such as one, thirty-six, two hundred, twenty-five cents) may be written as Arabic numerals (such as 3,688, 115%, or $4.75).

Use words rather than figures at the beginning of a sentence, and for the numbers one through nine. Except in scientific writing the numbers 11-99 are often spelled out.

Do not generally write numbers together either as Arabic numerals or as words. Write "ten 20-page books," not "10 20 page books."

In scientific writing use a space rather than a comma to break numbers above 999 into groups of three digits.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 11f, 18f[2].)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.03 Spelling

Use orthodox spelling based on a college or unabridged dictionary (such as The Oxford English Dictionary or Webster's Third New International Dictionary), or a specialized dictionary (such as The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words or Dictionary of Anthropology). If you have one, use a spelling checker on your word processor before you hand in your paper.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 18, 10, 19, 7a; p. 403.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.04 Capitalization

Capitalize proper nouns and words used as proper nouns, and the first word of each sentence. In book and article titles, capitalize all major words and words of four or more letters--except when they are in the "References" section of your paper (see sections 8.10-8.13 for examples of usage in the "References" section). In the "References" section of your paper capitalize the first word after a colon or a dash.

If a hyphenated word is normally capitalized, also capitalize the word after the hyphen.

Names of specific university departments (e.g., Department of Sociology-Anthropology-Geography, UMD) and specific courses (e.g., Anthropology 1602) are capitalized. General references to departments (e.g., "some anthropology departments") and courses (e.g., "in an advanced anthropology course") are not capitalized.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 9.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.05 Italics

Use italics (or underlining if you do not have italics) to emphasize a word or phrase in a statement, to identify a letter or a word treated as a word, to identify a foreign word or phrase not yet absorbed into English. You must italicize (underline) all foreign words. Also use italics to identify the name of a ship, an airplane, or the like, and to designate certain titles (such as the title of a book, bulletin, scholarly journal, magazine, newspaper, works of classical literature--but not sacred writings--government report, play, musical, opera or other long musical composition, film, radio and television programs, radio program, or long poem). Underline genus and species designations such as Australopithecus africanus.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 10.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.06 Cited Titles (For comments on the title of your paper see section 9.01.)

  1. The title need not occur in the text unless it is especially helpful, but if it does, underline titles of published books, plays, bulletins, long poems, pamphlets, periodicals (including technical and scholarly journals, newspapers and magazines), yearbooks, works of classical literature (but not sacred writings), films, radio and television programs, ballets, operas, instrumental music, paintings, sculpture, and names of ships and aircraft.

  2. If they occur in the text, enclose in double quotation marks titles of articles, essays, short stories, short poems, songs, chapters of books, unpublished works (such as theses and dissertations), lectures and speeches, minutes, courses, and individual episodes of radio and television programs. (For examples see Hodges and Whitten, 16b.)

  3. If a title indicated by underlining appears within a title enclosed in double quotation marks, retain underlining. (For an example see the "Lengermann" entry in section 8.11.) When a title normally indicated by quotation marks appears within another title requiring quotation marks, give the shorter title single quotation marks. (For an example see the "Roufs" entry in section 8.11.)

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 33g[2],8b.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.07 Quotations

  1. Set off all direct quotations with quotation marks ( " "/), always placing commas and periods inside the closing quotation mark and colons and semicolons outside the the closing quotation mark. Other punctuation marks (question marks, exclamation points, dashes) go either inside or outside the closing quotation mark, depending on their function: they go outside if they are not part of the quotation, inside if they are.

    Use single quotation marks (' '/) to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

    Always use single and double quotation marks in pairs; the first mark indicates the beginning of the quote, the last identifies the end of the quote.

    Set off long quotations by indentation rather than by quotation marks. Indent ten spaces from the left margin, and double-space. If you quote two or more paragraphs, indent the first line of each paragraph thirteen spaces. Use quotation marks in an indented quotation only if they appear in the original.

    See Hodges and Whitten for special rules for quoting poetry.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 16.)

  2. All direct quotations--whether a word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, or more--must correspond exactly to the original source in spelling, capitalization, and interior punctuation! Exceptions, such as the underlining of words for emphasis or the modernization of spelling, must be explicitly indicated or explained in a note, or enclosed in parenthesis at the end of the quotation or in square brackets within the quotation. (E.g., "We note as well the problem raised by the simultaneous operation of multiple reference groups [emphasis added].")

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 16.)

    Be sure to use brackets [ ] , not parentheses ( ) , to indicate additions or explanations of another's quotation.

    Use brackets to replace parentheses within parentheses. For e.g., "(For e.g., Fleischman [1987] proves the effectiveness of . . .)."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 17g.)

  3. Use "[sic]" to indicate that you have accurately quoted a source with an error or unusual feature.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 17g.)

  4. You may wish to omit a word, phrase, or sentence from your quotation. Indicate these omissions with three spaced ellipsis points (. . .). (E.g., Ollenburger maintains her theory of law explains common sense, . . . which is what she considers fundamental.

    Use a period and three ellipsis points to indicate any omission between two sentences, or to indicate the omission of a sentence or more within a quoted passage. When using ellipsis points to indicate omissions, you must preserve accurately the ideas of the author being quoted, and your resulting statement must be grammatically correct (i.e., sentence syntax, or sentence arrangement, must be complete).

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 17i.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.08 APA (American Psychological Association) In-text Citations

Unless you already use another commonly accepted style of referencing, such as the MLA style (from the Modern Language Association), follow the "parenthetical" ("author-date") style of the American Psychological Association (APA). The APA style in-text citations identify all references at the appropriate point in the text.

Altogether, your in-text material should include:

  1. the last name(s) of the author(s), (if two names might be confused, add the first and middle initials of each),

  2. the year of publication, and,

  3. where appropriate, page numbers. You must always give page numbers for quotations.

Your in-text citations should look like the following examples in section 8.09 and those used in the sample first page of a research paper (see section 14.00).

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.09 In-text Rules and Examples

  1. Identify all references to monographs, articles, data sources, etc., at the appropriate point in the text by the last name of the author, year of publication, and pagination where appropriate, all within parentheses. With the APA style you do not always need page numbers. (But you do always need page numbers when you quote someone!) Subsequent references to the same source use the same methods.

    "Past research (Hamlin, 1985, 1986, in press) suggests a link between. . . ."

    Do not use abbreviations such as "ibid.," "op. cit.," or "loc. cit."

  2. When you use an author's name in the text, cite the year of publication in parentheses:

    "Hamlin (1986) studied the impact of active learning in introductory. . . ."

  3. If you do not use the author's name in the text, cite in parentheses the author's last name and year of publication:

    "In a recent study of active learning (Hamlin, 1986) two objectives. . . ."

  4. If you use both the author's name and the date of publication in the text, add no citation in the parentheses (unless, for some specific reason, you want to add the page numbers):

    "In 1986, Hamlin studied active learning in introductory sociology. . . ."

  5. Within a paragraph, subsequent references to a cited article are not again cited in parentheses.

    "In a recent study of active learning, Hamlin (1986) found that. . . . Hamlin also discovered. . . . He theorized. . . . His idea. . . . Hamlin concluded. . . ."

  6. Always give page numbers for quotations, otherwise give page numbers only when you want to cite a specific part of a work. Pagination, when it occurs, follows year of publication:

    "'. . . all ten cases cited in his study' (Hamlin, 1986, pp. 13-15)."

    "Data from a recent study (Hamlin, 1986, pp. 11, 18) support earlier. . . ."

  7. For a work with two authors give both last names, citing both names every time the reference occurs in the text.

    "Janssen and Hamlin (1986) studied the impact of active learning. . . ."

    "In a recent study of active learning (Janssen & Hamlin, 1986). . . ."

  8. For a work with three to five authors cite all authors the first time, but in subsequent citations include only the surname of the first author followed by "et al.":

    "Janssen, Hamlin, and Flagler (1986) found active learning more effective. . . ."

  9. Subsequent references to the above (#8), and all references to works with six or more authors should read:

    "Janssen et al. (1986) claim active learning promotes. . . ."

  10. When two authors have the same last name, use identifying initials in the text:

    "Reports by D. M. Janssen (1986) and S. G. Janssen (1986) find skiing. . . ."

  11. For institutional authorship, supply minimum identification from the beginning of the complete citation:

    "A study in Time ("New Education Trends," 1982, May 12) cites Hamlin. . . ."

    "The University of Minnesota Duluth Bulletin (1987-1989, p. 2) states. . . ."

    ". . . learning activity (National Endowment for the Humanities [NEH], 1986)."

    Subsequent references to this should read: ". . . active learning (NEH, 1986)."

    ". . . all support our highly rated program (University of Minnesota, 1987)."

    "A University of Minnesota report (1987) strongly rates its effectiveness. . . ."

    "The Wheeler-Howard Act (1934) interfered with tribal government structures by. . . ."

  12. Enclose a series of independent sources within a single pair of parentheses, separating the sources with semicolons:

    "Two studies (Aschenbrenner, 1985; D. M. Smith, 1981) stress humanistic. . . ."

  13. If you cite two or more publications by the same author published in the same year distinguish them by the letters a, b, c, etc., added to the year:

    "In his study of reluctant farmers Aschenbrenner (1986b) compared. . . ."

  14. Personal communications, unpublished interviews, and references to the Bible are cited as follows, but in the text only, not in the reference list:

    "Hamlin (personal communication, May 10, 1986) argues that learning. . . ."

    ". . . class learned more (J. Hamlin, personal communication, May 10, 1986)."

    "The Bible presents its own version of evolution (Gen. 1:1-27; 2:1-9)."

  15. With the APA in-text format use endnotes only for substantive content. Few now use footnotes (notes at the bottom of the page), except to explain tables, figures and the like. (See section 9.06.)

Index © UMD Library Catalog Search

8.10 Examples of References to Books, Manuscripts and Reports

Note: In your paper double-space all references, as in boxed Example 1.

Example 1


Spencer, R. F. (1969). The north Alaskan Eskimo.

Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.

(Original work published in 1959)