7.00 Writing the Paper

Write a first draft following your outline (see sections 1.00, 2.00, and 6.00-6.01). Quickly execute this draft, which should present your ideas in rough form. In subsequent drafts you may delete material, improve wording, make style consistent, and correct mechanical errors (see Hodges and Whitten, 33h.) Read sections 7.00-7.07, 8.00-8.09.

Your paper should have an introduction (see section 7.01), a body (see section 7.02), a conclusion (see section 7.03), and a list of "References" (see section 7.04); it may also have an "Abstract" (see section 7.05) and/or an "Appendix" (see section 7.06).

(See Hodges and Whitten, 33g, 34e.)

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7.01 Introduction to Paper

1. In the first part of your introduction define the problem ("topic"), indicate its significance, and review relevant scholarly literature (see section 4.00). "Define" here means to bound or establish limits; that is, you should indicate what is included and excluded from consideration.

2. In the next part of the introduction state your methodological approach and conclusions.

3. Write the final version of the introduction last. This helps to avoid writer's block and ensures that your introduction accurately reflects the contents of your paper.

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7.02 Body of Paper

1. The body of the paper presents your major points. Thus it should include your evidence, the arguments for and against your hypothesis, and your organized, expository discussion explaining and summarizing your position. (See 12.00-12.04.)

2. Transfer the evidence from your notes (see sections 3.02 and 12.03) to your research paper in a manner both logical and critical. (See Hodges and Whitten, 31a-c.)

3. Effective writing presents excellent content in clear, concise, correct sentences. See section 7.07 for helpful suggestions. A good dictionary, a thesaurus or dictionary of synonyms, and a writing guide remain essential tools for any writer.

4. You must document evidence with in-text citations, according to a standard form (see sections 8.08-8.13). Make ideas, thoughts, arguments, theories, facts, or evidence you include very clear to the reader.

   The absence of a citation (or a quotation with a citation) implies either that you are the source or that the item is commonly known by all. Where you are not the source, you must always indicate the source by a citation, even if you have summarized or paraphrased another source in your own words. Of course if you have used the same words as the source, you must also use quotation marks to enclose them. (See Hodges and Whitten, 16, 34e.) Use APA in-text style (see section 8.07).

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7.03 Conclusion(s)

Your concluding section should summarize your paper and judiciously present your conclusions based on the evidence given. The last paragraph of a paper should round out the subject and give the final emphasis. It should also sound like a last paragraph and leave the reader with exactly the impression you intended. Quite often a statement of "suggestions for further research" is appropriate.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 33g.)

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7.04 List of References ("Bibliography")

List all the works used and/or referred to in the text and notes, but only those you have cited or used. Do not list works you have not used.

See section 8.14 for suggestions on the placement and arrangement of the references.

(See Hodges and Whitten, pp. 478-480; 34e.)

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7.05 Abstract

Occasionally in college writing you may want or need to add a brief (usually 75-150 words), concise yet comprehensive summary of your paper in the form of an abstract. If you have an abstract, begin it on page two (i.e., the page after the title page), typed single-spaced in block format (i.e., without indentation) following the centered title "Abstract."

See "Abstracts," Maxine C. Hairston. Successful Writing (2nd ed., 1986). New York: W.W. Norton, pp. 223 - 227, for information on "Promissory Abstracts," and "Summary Abstracts"

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7.06 Appendix

You may place in an appendix tables of data too long to work into the body of a paper, long quotations, a copy of questionnaires you may have used, or primary data--but term papers usually do not require this. (See Hodges and Whitten, pp. 499-500, and section 17.00.)

If you use an appendix, begin that on a separate page and include it after the "Endnotes" (content endnote section, if there is one), or after the text (if there are no "Endnotes" [cf., 9.08]). If you type materials for the Appendix, type them double-spaced, following the centered title "Appendix." If you have more than one, begin each on a separate page and label them "Appendix A," "Appendix B," etc. Indent the first line(s) five spaces.

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7.07 Helpful Hints:

1. Write to a specific identifiable audience. Your audience helps you define and shape your subject, and affects your emphasis, level of diction, content, tone, sentence and paragraph length, the amount of background material you need to include, the amount of jargon (technical vocabulary) you may use, and so forth. Try to analyze the needs and interests of your audience and write to those. Always assume your readers are intelligent, though perhaps uninformed.

   When revising keep your audience continually in mind.

   When writing a research paper for a class, write to your classmates who want to learn something about your subject; do not write to the instructor! Try to write with a specific individual in mind, an individual you consider "typical" of the group.

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 33c, 19b-d, 19g.)

2. Choose a suitable essay structure and hold to it. Simplify a complex organization by clustering common elements under headings and subheadings in your formal outline and in your paper. Why not try to handle like elements statistically (see sections 6.00-6.02)?

   In general, never list more than four or five examples without using a new subheading. (See "On sharpening sociologists' prose," H. C. Selvin and E. K. Wilson, 1984, Sociological Quarterly, 25, 205-222.)

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 33f, 32b, 29.)

3. When introducing a concept or important term, briefly explain your understanding of it, but avoid dictionary definitions.

   When defining, proceed from the general to the particular: state the general class to which the thing or idea to be defined belongs (e.g., "Pressure flaking is a technique for preparing stone tools . . ."), then the particular features of the thing defined (". . . wherein small flakes are removed from the edge of a larger rock fragment by applying pressure with a hard object, such as a rock or an antler tip . . . . "). Add an example to your definition (". . . Pressure-flaked tools include the well-known and beautiful pressure-retouched laurel-leaf Solutrean blades.").

   Keep your definition as simple as possible, but make sure it pertains to all instances of the thing defined.

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 32d[7], 23e[2].)

4. Use relevant examples in the body of the paper!

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 32d[2], 32d[7],23e[2].)

5. Through interpretation, make clear the relevance of examples or data. Do not simply present examples or data without interpreting their place and importance. Examples and data do not speak for themselves. Their message is usually not self-evident.

6. Add a diagram (graph, pie chart, bar chart, histogram, sketch, etc.) or drawing to your work. These illustrations help explain your point, and they allow you to present information quickly, clearly and concisely. Effective illustrations enable you to use fewer words than would otherwise be needed.

   Number illustrations and include concise headings. Place illustrations in the most appropriate locations; do not simply add them at the beginning or the end. (See section 9.07 for instructions on placement in text.) You must have at least one reference to each illustration in the text.

   Drawings, maps, and plans should be made to scale, with the scale marked.

7. Interweave quotations with interpretive words to relate the quotations to your arguments and explanations. As a general rule, your interpretation of a quotation should be at least as long as the quotation itself.

   Do not use quotations excessively.

   Avoid long quotations.

8. Avoid general statements except as part of your introduction or summary statement. Remember that generalizations often need qualification.

9. Avoid value-laden words. For example, avoid words like "primitive," "uncivilized," "savages."

10. You will get along much better in life if you avoid "to be" verbs as if they represented ignoble carriers of the bubonic plague. For a review of these verbs look up "be" in your dictionary. In part, The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language contains the following information:

    (See Hodges and Whitten 29d.)

    be v.
    Tense/Number	1st person	2nd person	3rd person
    Present Tense
    singular	am	are	is
    plural	are	are	are
    Past Tense
    singular	was	were	was
    plural	were	were	were
    Present Participle: being
    Present Subjunctive: be
    Past Participle: been
    Past Subjunctive: were

    Examples of how to change sentences with too many "to be" verbs (* indicates less desirable forms):

    *"A great deal of importance is also placed on individuals who are wealthy."

    "People place a great deal of importance on wealthy individuals."

    *"The position of achievement that was strived for was the 'eldership.'"

    "Men strove to achieve 'eldership.'"

11. Use active voice and choose verbs carefully. Use verbs of action as much as possible. These show the subject doing something, not just being something. They also more clearly show who is doing what to whom. Passive constructions make for unneeded extra words and syllables (* indicates less desirable forms).

    *"Girls are rewarded by teachers for being kind, quiet, and dependent."

    "Teachers reward girls for being . . . ."

    *"The caves were discovered by four young girls who were chasing after their dog."

    "Four young girls chasing a dog discovered the caves."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 29d, 27a; pp. 7, 73, 502, 508-09, 520, 527.)

12. Use concrete nouns instead of abstract words. A concrete word names something you can see, touch, taste, smell, or hear. An abstract word names a feeling (e.g., love), a state of being (e.g., misery), an idea (e.g., democracy), a theory (e.g., evolution), a field of study (e.g., anthropology), or a class of things too broad to be visualized (e.g., creature, plant, organism). Abstract words sum up the total effect of many particular, concrete things.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 20a.)

13. Use slang, jargon (technical vocabulary), and figures of speech sparingly.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 19c-g, 29a[4].)

14. Speak directly to the subject, rather than with circumlocution. Shun needless introductory and connecting phrases (* indicates less desirable forms).

    *"I thought you might be interested in someone else's ideas about man's evolution regardless."

    "I think evolution . . . "; or, simply say what you want about evolution: "Evolution stinks."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 20-22, 29-30.)

15. Use appropriate transitions.

16. Omit needless words! Most often prefatory phrases ending in "that" ("It is thought that . . . .") can be eliminated. Look at the following examples (* indicates less desirable forms):

    *"First of all, I would like to give you my definition of what stereotyping means. Stereotyping means . . . ."

    "Stereotyping means . . . ."

    *"It seems to me people tend to believe great fallacies . . . ."

    "People tend to believe great . . . ."

    *"It is when people actually start believing these misleading notions that it begins  . . . ."

    "When people start believing these misleading notions, it begins . . . ."

    *"Another part of their culture that included killing and cannibalism was war."

    "Their warfare included killing and cannibalism."

    *"The meat was described as being salty and tasting much like pork."

    "The salty meat tasted much like pork."

    *"There are four different criterias that could be used to analyze the nature and extent that poverty has in this country."

    "Four criteria illustrate the nature and extent of poverty in this country."

    *"An article in Science magazine says that primitive stone tools made from pebbles or irregular pieces of stone have been unearthed along with Homo habilis remains (1965, 29). The article in Science magazine also says that a rough circle of loosely piled stones has been found along with Homo habilis remains on a living floor site at Olduvai Gorge (1965, 31)."

    "Along with Homo habilis remains, Mary Leakey unearthed primitive stone tools made from pebbles or irregular stone pieces. In this Olduvai living floor site she also found a rough circle of loosely piled stones (Science, 1965, 31)."

    Introductory phrases ending with "that" can usually be eliminated to reduce wordiness:

    *"Another interesting fact is that the teeth unearthed from this period did not show any cavities."

    "The teeth unearthed from this period showed no cavities."

    *"It was found that they had separate areas for cooking, butchering and for putting their refuse or garbage."

    "They had separate areas for cooking, butchering, and putting their garbage."

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 21.)

17. Use parallel construction.

    1. In general, line up nouns with nouns of the same type, verbs with verbs of the same type, phrases with phrases of the same type, and so on. Examples:

       "The Maya, Aztec and Inca developed writing systems."

       "I came, I saw, I conquered."

       "Love me, or leave me, or let me be lonely."

       "He made his living by singing, dancing, and passing the hat."

       "Singing he sounded wonderful, while dancing he looked stupid."

    2. When you use "not only" you must also use "but also." The same principle applies for the other correlatives: "either--or," "neither--nor," "both--and," and "whether--or."

    3. Elements in an outline, as well as chapter titles, subtitles, and headings should be parallel (see section 6.01). Group together elements like the following:

       • Navajo, Chippewa, Iroquois, Dakota

       • Upper Great Lakes, Southern Plains

       • Bivariate Methods, Multivariate Methods

       • Nationalism, Feminism

       • Ceramic Production, Ceramic Use and Disposal, Ceramic Change

       • The Late Colonial Period, The Immediate Postcolonial Period, The 1970s & After

       • Hohokam, Mogollon, Anasazi

       • Language and Medicine, Language and Law, Language and Education

       • Carlton, Esko, Proctor

       • Systems Theory, Systemic Concepts, Systems Models

       • Paleolithic, Mesolithic, Neolithic

       • Minnesota, Wisconsin, Iowa

    4. The nature of things compared must be parallel. For example, compare:

       • capitalism with socialism, not Russia

       • Christianity with mysticism, not mystics

       • Navajo with other Indian nations, not with the United States or Brazil.

       However, you may compare group ratios (e.g., "16:1") or rates (e.g., "15/1000", or "0.015") with national ratios or rates, or group percentages (e.g., "18.2%") with national percentages.

       (See Hodges and Whitten, 26a-b, 29g, 32b, 33f.)

18. Present opposing views briefly, whether using illustrations or summaries.

19. Feel free to write briefly about relevant personal experiences, but avoid long digressive personal anecdotes.

20. Emphasize your own ideas and interpretations as you present information. Do not merely paraphrase your sources. Indicate both demonstrated support for your statement and where you are speculating or presenting other evidence based on suspicion, faith, "common sense," or other reasons. (See Hodges and Whitten, 31a-c.) Also indicate whether the points you make represent the way things are or the way you think they should be.

21. Use sex-neutral language. Consider using words and phrases like the following:²

    USE	RATHER THAN
    humankind, humanity, people, human beings	mankind, man
    human achievements	man's achievements
    the average person, people in general	the average man
    work force, workers, human resources	manpower
    "The search for knowledge has led us into . . . ."	"Man's search for knowledge has led him into . . . ."
    ". . . monkeys, apes, and humans."	". . . monkeys, apes and man."
    "Each person has her or his . . . .	"Each person has his . . . ."
    "he" or "she" (or "s/he")	"he" (in reference to people in general)
    "chair," "chairperson," or "moderator"	"chairman"
    "Individuals have their own ways of . . . .	"Each person had his own way of . . . ."
    "Neanderthals . . . ."	"Neanderthal man . . . ."
    (See Hodges and Whitten, p. 68.)

22. Your paper should reflect careful revision. After you have checked for errors, have another person read your paper to check for logic, clarity, spelling, grammar, mechanics, and punctuation. (See Hodges and Whitten, 33h.) Do not forget to use your word processor's spelling checker.

    Before you hand in your paper, read it to yourself out loud.

    For a review of revising papers, see the twenty-eight minute videotape Revising Prose (or have a look at the book by the same title) by Richard A. Lanham, available at the Learning Resource Center, 165 Library (UMD library No. VC 301).

    If you can, allow some time to elapse between drafts. This will help you view your own writing more objectively.

    (See Hodges and Whitten, 8e-f, 33h, 34e[3]. Note "Reviser's Checklist" on pp. 386-88.)