8.00 Some Matters of Style (See also section 7.07, "Helpful Hints.")

Use correct grammar and style conventions as defined by rules in a currently used college handbook of English.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 1-7.)

8.01 Punctuation

Use correct punctuation according to the rules set forth in college handbooks of English. Dictionaries often contain a section (usually in the back) on conventional uses of punctuation.

Be careful not to confuse ;/ and :/, ( )/ and [ ]/, and --/ and -/. Use commas carefully and correctly.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 12-17.)

8.02 Numbers

Usage varies, but in general, numbers that one cannot spell out in one or two words (such as one, thirty-six, two hundred, twenty-five cents) may be written as Arabic numerals (such as 3,688, 115%, or $4.75).

Use words rather than figures at the beginning of a sentence, and for the numbers one through nine. Except in scientific writing the numbers 11-99 are often spelled out.

Do not generally write numbers together either as Arabic numerals or as words. Write "ten 20-page books," not "10 20 page books."

In scientific writing use a space rather than a comma to break numbers above 999 into groups of three digits.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 11f, 18f[2].)

8.03 Spelling

Use orthodox spelling based on a college or unabridged dictionary (such as The Oxford English Dictionary or Webster's Third New International Dictionary), or a specialized dictionary (such as The Penguin Dictionary of Troublesome Words or Dictionary of Anthropology). If you have one, use a spelling checker on your word processor before you hand in your paper.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 18, 10, 19, 7a; p. 403.)

8.04 Capitalization

Capitalize proper nouns and words used as proper nouns, and the first word of each sentence. In book and article titles, capitalize all major words and words of four or more letters--except when they are in the "References" section of your paper (see sections 8.10-8.13 for examples of usage in the "References" section). In the "References" section of your paper capitalize the first word after a colon or a dash.

If a hyphenated word is normally capitalized, also capitalize the word after the hyphen.

Names of specific university departments (e.g., Department of Sociology-Anthropology-Geography, UMD) and specific courses (e.g., Anthropology 1602) are capitalized. General references to departments (e.g., "some anthropology departments") and courses (e.g., "in an advanced anthropology course") are not capitalized.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 9.)

8.05 Italics

Use italics (or underlining if you do not have italics) to emphasize a word or phrase in a statement, to identify a letter or a word treated as a word, to identify a foreign word or phrase not yet absorbed into English. You must italicize (underline) all foreign words. Also use italics to identify the name of a ship, an airplane, or the like, and to designate certain titles (such as the title of a book, bulletin, scholarly journal, magazine, newspaper, works of classical literature--but not sacred writings--government report, play, musical, opera or other long musical composition, film, radio and television programs, radio program, or long poem). Underline genus and species designations such as Australopithecus africanus.

(See Hodges and Whitten, 10.)

8.06 Cited Titles (For comments on the title of your paper see section 9.01.)

1. The title need not occur in the text unless it is especially helpful, but if it does, underline titles of published books, plays, bulletins, long poems, pamphlets, periodicals (including technical and scholarly journals, newspapers and magazines), yearbooks, works of classical literature (but not sacred writings), films, radio and television programs, ballets, operas, instrumental music, paintings, sculpture, and names of ships and aircraft.

2. If they occur in the text, enclose in double quotation marks titles of articles, essays, short stories, short poems, songs, chapters of books, unpublished works (such as theses and dissertations), lectures and speeches, minutes, courses, and individual episodes of radio and television programs. (For examples see Hodges and Whitten, 16b.)

3. If a title indicated by underlining appears within a title enclosed in double quotation marks, retain underlining. (For an example see the "Lengermann" entry in section 8.11.) When a title normally indicated by quotation marks appears within another title requiring quotation marks, give the shorter title single quotation marks. (For an example see the "Roufs" entry in section 8.11.)

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 33g[2],8b.)

8.07 Quotations

1. Set off all direct quotations with quotation marks ( " "/), always placing commas and periods inside the closing quotation mark and colons and semicolons outside the the closing quotation mark. Other punctuation marks (question marks, exclamation points, dashes) go either inside or outside the closing quotation mark, depending on their function: they go outside if they are not part of the quotation, inside if they are.

   Use single quotation marks (' '/) to enclose a quotation within a quotation.

   Always use single and double quotation marks in pairs; the first mark indicates the beginning of the quote, the last identifies the end of the quote.

   Set off long quotations by indentation rather than by quotation marks. Indent ten spaces from the left margin, and double-space. If you quote two or more paragraphs, indent the first line of each paragraph thirteen spaces. Use quotation marks in an indented quotation only if they appear in the original.

   See Hodges and Whitten for special rules for quoting poetry.

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 16.)

2. All direct quotations--whether a word, phrase, sentence, paragraph, or more--must correspond exactly to the original source in spelling, capitalization, and interior punctuation! Exceptions, such as the underlining of words for emphasis or the modernization of spelling, must be explicitly indicated or explained in a note, or enclosed in parenthesis at the end of the quotation or in square brackets within the quotation. (E.g., "We note as well the problem raised by the simultaneous operation of multiple reference groups [emphasis added].")

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 16.)

   Be sure to use brackets [ ] , not parentheses ( ) , to indicate additions or explanations of another's quotation.

   Use brackets to replace parentheses within parentheses. For e.g., "(For e.g., Fleischman [1987] proves the effectiveness of . . .)."

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 17g.)

3. Use "[sic]" to indicate that you have accurately quoted a source with an error or unusual feature.

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 17g.)

4. You may wish to omit a word, phrase, or sentence from your quotation. Indicate these omissions with three spaced ellipsis points (. . .). (E.g., Ollenburger maintains her theory of law explains common sense, . . . which is what she considers fundamental.

   Use a period and three ellipsis points to indicate any omission between two sentences, or to indicate the omission of a sentence or more within a quoted passage. When using ellipsis points to indicate omissions, you must preserve accurately the ideas of the author being quoted, and your resulting statement must be grammatically correct (i.e., sentence syntax, or sentence arrangement, must be complete).

   (See Hodges and Whitten, 17i.)

8.08 APA (American Psychological Association) In-text Citations

Unless you already use another commonly accepted style of referencing, such as the MLA style (from the Modern Language Association), follow the "parenthetical" ("author-date") style of the American Psychological Association (APA). The APA style in-text citations identify all references at the appropriate point in the text.

Altogether, your in-text material should include:

1. the last name(s) of the author(s), (if two names might be confused, add the first and middle initials of each),

2. the year of publication, and,

3. where appropriate, page numbers. You must always give page numbers for quotations.

Your in-text citations should look like the following examples in section 8.09 and those used in the sample first page of a research paper (see section 14.00).

8.09 In-text Rules and Examples

1. Identify all references to monographs, articles, data sources, etc., at the appropriate point in the text by the last name of the author, year of publication, and pagination where appropriate, all within parentheses. With the APA style you do not always need page numbers. (But you do always need page numbers when you quote someone!) Subsequent references to the same source use the same methods.

   "Past research (Hamlin, 1985, 1986, in press) suggests a link between. . . ."

   Do not use abbreviations such as "ibid.," "op. cit.," or "loc. cit."

2. When you use an author's name in the text, cite the year of publication in parentheses:

   "Hamlin (1986) studied the impact of active learning in introductory. . . ."

3. If you do not use the author's name in the text, cite in parentheses the author's last name and year of publication:

   "In a recent study of active learning (Hamlin, 1986) two objectives. . . ."

4. If you use both the author's name and the date of publication in the text, add no citation in the parentheses (unless, for some specific reason, you want to add the page numbers):

   "In 1986, Hamlin studied active learning in introductory sociology. . . ."

5. Within a paragraph, subsequent references to a cited article are not again cited in parentheses.

   "In a recent study of active learning, Hamlin (1986) found that. . . . Hamlin also discovered. . . . He theorized. . . . His idea. . . . Hamlin concluded. . . ."

6. Always give page numbers for quotations, otherwise give page numbers only when you want to cite a specific part of a work. Pagination, when it occurs, follows year of publication:

   "'. . . all ten cases cited in his study' (Hamlin, 1986, pp. 13-15)."

   "Data from a recent study (Hamlin, 1986, pp. 11, 18) support earlier. . . ."

7. For a work with two authors give both last names, citing both names every time the reference occurs in the text.

   "Janssen and Hamlin (1986) studied the impact of active learning. . . ."

   "In a recent study of active learning (Janssen & Hamlin, 1986). . . ."

8. For a work with three to five authors cite all authors the first time, but in subsequent citations include only the surname of the first author followed by "et al.":

   "Janssen, Hamlin, and Flagler (1986) found active learning more effective. . . ."

9. Subsequent references to the above (#8), and all references to works with six or more authors should read:

   "Janssen et al. (1986) claim active learning promotes. . . ."

10. When two authors have the same last name, use identifying initials in the text:

    "Reports by D. M. Janssen (1986) and S. G. Janssen (1986) find skiing. . . ."

11. For institutional authorship, supply minimum identification from the beginning of the complete citation:

    "A study in Time ("New Education Trends," 1982, May 12) cites Hamlin. . . ."

    "The University of Minnesota Duluth Bulletin (1987-1989, p. 2) states. . . ."

    ". . . learning activity (National Endowment for the Humanities [NEH], 1986)."

    Subsequent references to this should read: ". . . active learning (NEH, 1986)."

    ". . . all support our highly rated program (University of Minnesota, 1987)."

    "A University of Minnesota report (1987) strongly rates its effectiveness. . . ."

    "The Wheeler-Howard Act (1934) interfered with tribal government structures by. . . ."

12. Enclose a series of independent sources within a single pair of parentheses, separating the sources with semicolons:

    "Two studies (Aschenbrenner, 1985; D. M. Smith, 1981) stress humanistic. . . ."

13. If you cite two or more publications by the same author published in the same year distinguish them by the letters a, b, c, etc., added to the year:

    "In his study of reluctant farmers Aschenbrenner (1986b) compared. . . ."

14. Personal communications, unpublished interviews, and references to the Bible are cited as follows, but in the text only, not in the reference list:

    "Hamlin (personal communication, May 10, 1986) argues that learning. . . ."

    ". . . class learned more (J. Hamlin, personal communication, May 10, 1986)."

    "The Bible presents its own version of evolution (Gen. 1:1-27; 2:1-9)."

15. With the APA in-text format use endnotes only for substantive content. Few now use footnotes (notes at the bottom of the page), except to explain tables, figures and the like. (See section 9.06.)

Note: In your paper double-space all references, as in boxed Example 1.

• (The Spencer reference in boxed "Example 1" is to a book with a single author which is also a modern reprint of an older edition:)

Example 1
Spencer, R. F. (1969). The north Alaskan Eskimo. Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press. (Original work published in 1959)

• (Reference to a work with multiple authors:)

  Coleman, B., Frogner, E., & Eich, E. (1971). Ojibwa myths

  and legends. Minneapolis: Ross and Haines.

• (Reference to a later edition of a work with multiple authors :)

  Hodges, J. C., & Whitten, M. E. (Eds.). (1986). Harbrace

  college handbook (10th ed.). San Diego: Harcourt Brace

  Jovanovich.

• (Reference to a book or report with a corporate author, in this case one available from the U.S. GPO:)

  United States Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.

  (1986). Record of decision: Final environmental impact

  statement, land and resource management plan, Superior

  National Forest. (USDA Publication No. 641-110/20043).

  Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

• (Reference to a government report with an unknown author not available from the Government Printing Office:)

  Cultural status of the South African man-apes. (1955). In

  Annual report of the Smithsonian Institution (pp. 318-

  338). Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution.

• (Reference to a work in two or more volumes or parts [see next entry for reference to a specific volume or part]:)

  Durant, W., & Durant, A. (1935-1967). The story of

  civilization (Vols. 1-10). New York: Simon and

  Schuster.

• (A reference to part of a specific volume of the above would look like this:)

  Durant, W., & Durant, A. (1961). The story of civilization:

  Vol. 7. The age of reason begins (pp. 479-484). New

  York: Simon and Schuster.

• (Reference to a published proceedings of conferences:)

  Shannon, L. W. (1968). The study of migrants as members of

  social systems. In J. Helm (Ed.), Proceedings of the

  1968 Annual Meeting of the American Ethnological Society

  (pp. 34-64). Seattle: University of Washington Press.

• (Reference to an unpublished manuscript:)

  Fleischman, W. A. (1978). Resident and non-resident owner

  attitudes toward land use. Unpublished manuscript,

  University of Minnesota, Duluth, Center for Community

  and Regional Studies, Duluth, MN.

• (Reference to an unpublished master's thesis:)

  Ollenburger, J. C. (1979). Criminal victimization and fear

  of crime among the elderly. Unpublished master's thesis,

  University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE.

• (Reference to a doctoral dissertation abstracted in Dissertation Abstracts International [DAI] and obtained on university microfilm:)

  Ollenburger, J. C. (1983). Juvenile justice in Scotland: An

  analysis of panel members attitudes toward justice

  (Doctoral dissertation, University of Nebraska, 1982).

  Dissertation Abstracts International, 43, 2458A.

  (University Microfilms No. DA8228155)

8.11 Examples of References to Articles, and Original and Reprinted Short Works.

Note: In your paper double-space all references, as in boxed Example 1.

• (Reference to an article from a monthly magazine:)

  Patterson, F. (1978, October). Conversations with a gorilla.

  National Geographic, pp. 438-465.

• (Reference to an article from a newspaper where the author is given and where pages are discontinuous:)

  Creedon, J. (1979, September 24). The Kosinski method.

  Minnesota Daily, pp. 32, 34.

• (Reference to an article from a weekly magazine or weekly newspaper, with no author given:)

  Puzzling out man's ascent. (1977, November 7). Time, 64-69.

• (Reference to an article in journal with continuous pagination throughout the annual volume:)

  Black, D. (1979). Common sense in the sociology of law.

  American Sociological Review, 44, 18-27.

  [If pagination is not continuous add the issue number in parentheses after the volume number:]

  Black, D. (1979). Common sense . . . , 44(6), 18-27.]

• (Reference to two works of the same author in the same year; arrange alphabetically by title, add a, b,c, etc.:)

  Davis, K. (1963a). Social demography. In B. Berelson (Ed.),

  The behavioral sciences today (pp. 124-137). New York:

  Basic.

  Davis, K. (1963b). The theory of change and response in

  modern demographic history. Population Index, 29, 345-

  366.

• (Reference to an article reprinted in a collection of works by different authors:)

  Carneiro, R. L. (1974). A theory of the origin of the

  state. In Y. A. Cohen (Ed.), Man in adaptation (2nd

  ed., pp. 417-426). Chicago: Aldine. (Reprinted from

  Science, 1970, 169, 733-738)

• (Reference to a work in a collection of works by the same author:)

  Hallowell, A. I. (1955). The nature and function of

  property as a social institution. In A. I. Hallowell,

  Culture and experience (pp. 236-249). Philadelphia:

  University of Pennsylvania Press. (Reprinted from

  Journal of Legal and Political Sociology, 1943, 1,

  115-138)

• (Reference to an unsigned article in a reference work:)

  Culture change. (1976). Encyclopedia of anthropology (pp.

  97-98).

• (Reference to an article whose title contains an underlined title:)

  Lengermann, P. M. (1979). The founding of the American

  Sociological Review: The anatomy of a rebellion.

  American Sociological Review, 44, 185-198.

• (Reference to an article whose title contains a quotation or a title within quotation marks:)

  Roufs, T. G. (1974). A note on myth in method: Some further

  observations on James' "Continuity and Emergence in

  Indian Poverty Cultures." Current Anthropology, 15,

  307-310.

8.12 Examples of References to Reviews, Notes, and Letters to the Editor.

Note: In your paper double-space all references, as in boxed Example 1.

• (Reference to an untitled book review:)

  Everett, M. W. (1979). [Review of Ethnic medicine in the

  Southwest]. American Anthropologist, 81, 172-173.

• (Reference to a letter to the editor:)

  Levy, M. M. (1979, September 24). [Letter to the editor].

  Minnesota Daily, Sec. 1, p. 6.

• (Reference to a published note whose title contains an underlined title:)

  Suttles, W. (1979). The Mouth of Heaven and the Kwakiutl

  tongue: A comment on Walens on Goldman. American

  Anthropologist, 81, 96-98.

8.13 Examples of References to Nonprint Media, Lectures, and Legal Materials.

Note: In your paper double-space all references, as in boxed Example 1.

Personal communications and unpublished interviews are cited in the text only, not in the reference list.

• (Reference to a TV or radio program:)

  Downs, H. (Narrator). (1968, March 21). The first

  Americans [Film]. New York: NBC News.

• (Reference to a film:)

  Gardner, R. G. (Director). (1964). Dead birds [Film].

  Washington, DC: Harvard University, Peabody Museum,

  Film Study Center.

• (Reference to a published cassette recording:)

  Dart, R. A. (1975). The discovery of Australopithecus

  (Cassette Recording No. 35618). North Hollywood, CA:

  Center for Cassette Studies.

• (Reference to a lecture:)

  Laundergan, J C. (1987, December 8). [Functional analysis

  of social stratification.] Sociology 1100 class

  lecture. University of Minnesota, Duluth. Duluth, MN.

• (Reference to a work of art:)

  Sorcerer from Les Trois Freres. (1967). (Illustration No.

  79). In G. Clark, The Stone Age hunters. London:

  Thames and Hudson.

• (Reference to legal materials, statutes:) ³

  Wheeler-Howard Act of 1934, 25 U.S.C. §461 (1976).

• (Reference to legal materials, court cases:) ³

  Trustees of Dartmouth v. Woodward, 4 Wheaton 518, 636

  (1819).

8.14 Citing Electronic or Internet Resources

8.15 Order of References in the List of "References"

With in-text citations use a list of "References" at the end of your paper instead of a bibliography. In your list of "References" include only the sources you have cited and nothing else. (See Hodges and Whitten, 34e.) The reference section must include all works used in your paper. See example "References" entries below in number 8.

1. Starting on a separate page arrange references in alphabetical order by the surname of the first author. Alphabetize letter by letter; remember, "nothing" precedes "something."

2. Put single-author entries before multiple-author entries beginning with the same surname and initials.

3. Arrange references with the same first author and different second or third authors alphabetically by the surname and initials of the second author, and so on.

4. List references to multiple-author works with the same authors arranged in the same order, by year of publication, the earliest first.

5. Order works by different authors with the same surname alphabetically by the first initial.

6. Place references by the same author(s) with the same publication date alphabetically by title (excluding "little words" like "A," "An," and "The"), and add lower case letters (a, b, c, etc.) immediately after the year, within the parentheses.

7. List corporate authors by the first significant word of the full official name. A parent body (for e.g., Harcourt Brace Jovanovich) precedes a subdivision (for e.g., Davidson Printing).

8. If there is no author, the title of the work moves to the author position in the "References," and the reference is alphabetized by the first significant word of the title.

   Examples (be sure to double-space in your paper):

   Aschenbrenner, S. A. (1986a). Life in a. . . .

   Aschenbrenner, S. A. (1986b). Reluctant. . . .

   Baeumler, W. L. (1979). Multinational. . . .

   Janssen, D. M. (1986). Professional cross-. . . .

   Janssen, S. J. (1986). Competitive skiing. . . .

   Janssen, S. J., & Hamlin, J. E. (1985). . . .

   Janssen, S. J., & Hamlin, J. E. (1986). . . .

   Janssen, S. J., Hamlin, J. E., & Flagler, R. L.

   (1984). Live learning. . . .

   Puzzling out man's ascent. (1977, November. . . .

   United States Department of Agriculture. . . .

   Witzig, F. T. (1981). State park boundary. . . .